•   Stress and strain due to axial loading

Strain:- no material is perfectly rigid. Under the action of force or load ductile material
undergoes changes in shape and size. Actually all materials including steel, cast iron,
brass, concrete etc. undergo similar deformation when loaded.
Their are instruments like,
 Extensimeter
 Electric strain gauges
 Universal testing machine……….which can measure extension of magnitude 1/100 th,
1/1000th of a millimeter.
strain is the alternation of shape as dimension resulting from the stress.

If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress, the bar will change in length.
If the bar has an original length L and changes in length by an amount the strain
produced is defined as follows:

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
• Strain is thus a measure of the deformation of the material
 
 it has no units; it is simply a ratio of two quantities with the same
unit

Alternatively, strain can be expressed as a percentage strain

 What is the difference b/n Lateral strain and longitudinal strain?

It may be:-
 Tensile strain………………………..
 Compressive strain …………………………………..
 Shear strain =tan …………………………………………….why?

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 Shear strain = = tan

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•   Stress-strain diagram
 Stress –strain diagram is a diagram representing the relation
between stress and strain in a given material.
 As the load increase the distance between the two points will be
increase.
 Recording the values of the load applied with the corresponding
value of L shall be done. then the stress equals P/A and the strain
equals L/L will be calculated.
Ductile materials :-
 Characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperature.
 As the material is subjected to an increasing load ,its length is
increases linearly with the load with very slow rate.
 Thus the initial portion of the stress –strain diagram will be straight
line with a steep slope.
 After a critical values of as been reached the material undergoes a
large deformation with a relatively small increase in the applied load.
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 After a certain maximum value of the load has been reached the
diameter of a portion of the material begins to decrease because of
local instability.
 Thus phenomena is known as Necking.
 After necking has been seen somewhat lower loads are sufficient to
keep the material elongate further until it finally breaks.
 The stress at which the yield is indicated is called yield strength of
the material.
 The stress corresponding to the maximum load applied to the
material is known as the ultimate strength.
 The stress corresponding to the rupture (faller) is called the breaking
strength.

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 Stress strain diagram for structural steel

Point A:- limit of proportionality, it is a limiting value of the

stress up to which the stress is proportional to the strain.
Point B:- upper yield point, it is the point where the yielding
starts.

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Point c:- lower yield point, the load required to maintain the yield.
Point D:- ultimate stress, the maximum stress that the material can be
resist.
Point E:- breaking (failure point), the stress at which the material fails.
 The same result can be developed while applying compressive load,
but for ductile material under compressive test their is no neck
formation.
Brittle materials:-
 In these material, there is no appreciable change in rate of strain.
Their is no yield point and no necking takes place. Ultimate point and
breaking point are one and at the same. The strain at failure is very
small.
 For most brittle material ultimate compressive stress in compression
is Mach longer than in tension.

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Stress strain diagram for brittle material

Elasticity and elastic limit

 When an external force acts on the body, the body tends to undergo some
deformation if the external force is removed and the body comes to its
origin shape and size(which means the deformation disappears
completely), is known as elastic body.
 This property, By virtue of which certain material return back to their
original position after the removal of the external force, is called elasticity.
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 The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the
deformation caused by the external force, is within a certain limit.
 Thus there is a limiting value of the force up to and with in which, the
deformation completely disappears on the removal of the force.
 The value of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as the
elastic limit of the material.
 If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the elastic limit,
the material loses to some extent its property of elasticity.
 If now the force is removed , the material will not return to its origin
shape and size and there will be a residual deformation in the material.
Hooke's Law And Elastic Moduli
Hooke's law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the
stress is proportional to the strain produced by the stress.
 This means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain is constant
within the elastic limit.
 This constant is known as modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of
rigidity(for shear case) or Elastic Moduli.
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•   constant is given the symbol E and termed the modulus of elasticity
This
or Young’s modulus.

 This is the relationship between stress and strain for one

dimensional stress system.
Shear modulus(modulus of rigidity):- it is the ratio of shear stress to
the corresponding shear strain within the elastic limit.
G=

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 when the body subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an increase
in the length of the body.
 But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the
body at right angles to the line of action of the applied load.
 Thus the body is having axial deformation and also deformation at
right angles to the line of action of the applied load(i.e. lateral
deformation).

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1) If longitudinal strain is tensile, the lateral strain will be compressive.
2) If longitudinal strain is compressive, the lateral strain will be tensile.
3) Hence every longitudinal strain in the direction of load is
accompanied by lateral strains of the opposite kind in all directions
perpendicular to the load.
Poisson's ratio
 In all engineering material the elongation produced by an axial tensile
force P, in the direction of the force is accompanied by a contraction in
any transvers.
 Assuming the materials to be both homogenous and isotropic (the
mechanical properties will be assumed to be independent of both
position and direction) it follows the strain must have the same value
for any transvers direction. The ratio of lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material, when the material
is stressed within the elastic limit. This ratio is called Poisson's ratio

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•  lateral strain is opposite in sign to longitudinal strain, hence
As
Lateral strain = - longitudinal strain
 A three –dimensional body subjected to three
orthogonal normal stress acting in the
direction of “x”, “y” and “z” Respectively.
Consider the strains produce by each stress
separately.
The stress will produce strain in the direction of x and also in the direction of y
and z. the strain in the direction of x will be whereas the strain in the
direction of y and z will be - ,
similarly
in y direction, , and - , in x and z direction
In z direction, , and - , in x and y direction

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Let and are total strains in the direction of x, y and z respectively. then

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