BFC21103 Hydraulics

Chapter 3. Specific Energy and

Control Section
Tan Lai Wai, Wan Afnizan & Zarina Md Ali
laiwai@uthm.edu.my

Updated: September 2014

 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

i. Apply specific energy concept in determining critical flow conditions

ii. Analyse flow over broad-crested weir

iii. Analyse flow through width constriction

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

1.1 Concept of Specific Energy

Specific energy (introduced by Bakhmeteff) is the energy of flow measured with respect to the channel bottom.

V2
V12 E y
1 2g 2
2g

Water
surfac Energy line sl
ope S
hf
e or hydrau
lic grad f
e line s
lope S
w
V22
y1 2g

Bottom slope
S y2
 o
z1
z2
Datum
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 The concept of specific energy is useful in defining critical depth and in the analysis of flow problems.

Q2
For constant Q, E y
2gA2
Variation of E with y is represented by a cubic parabola,

y
y
E=
10

subcritical, Fr < 1
6
y (m)

y
sub
4
y
V12
1
2g
y 2
c critical, Fr = 1
y y
1 super y 0 V22 supercritical, Fr > 1
y 2 0
c y
2
45° 22g 4
E (m)
6 8 10

E
BFC21103 Hydraulics E E =E
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
min 1 2
1.2 Alternate Depths and Critical Depth

For a specific E (except E ), there are two flow depths y and y , i.e.
min 1 2
Subcritical y

Alternate depths

Supercritical y

If there is energy loss, e.g. during hydraulic jump, y and y are known as conjugate (or sequent) depths
1 2

Critical flow occurs when specific energy is minimum, E with y = critical depth
min c

Note: Negative flow depth is not possible.

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Q2
Specific energy E y
2gA2
dE Q 2 dA
Differentiating 1 3
dy gA dy
At minimum specific energy E , y = y and A = A
min c c

Q2
0  1  3 Tc dA
gAc T
Q2Tc dy
2
1 dA
dy
gAc Ac
Vc2
1
gDc
Vc
1
gDc
Fr  1
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Specific Energy of Flow in Rectangular Section

q2
Since Q  qB E y
2gy 2

Rearranging q  2gy 2  E  y 

Variation of q with y is represented by the following curve,

5
subcritical, Fr < 1
y
sub
4

y y (m)
3 critical, Fr = 1
c
y 2
1
y 1
c supercritical, Fr > 1
y
super 0
y 0 10 20 30 40 50
2 3
Q (m /s) q
BFC21103 Hydraulics q =q q
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
1 2 max
For a specific q (except q ), there are two flow depths y and y , i.e.
max 1 2
Subcritical y

Conjugate depths

Supercritical y

Critical flow occurs when discharge per unit width is maximum, i.e. q
max

Q  A 2g E  y 
dQ dA gA
Keeping E constant,  2g E  y  
dy dy 2g E  y 
Q gAc2
0  Tc 
Ac Q
Q2Tc
2
1
gAc Ac
Fr  1
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

State of flow can be established by comparing y with y .
o c

Characteristics Flow condition

Fr = 1
yo = yc Critical flow

Fr < 1
yo > yc Subcritical flow

Fr > 1
yo < yc Supercritical flow

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.1

The rate of flow in a 3-m wide rectangular channel is 10 m3/s. Calculate the specific energy if the depth of flow is

(a) 3 m; and

(b) 1.2 m.

Given Q = 10 m3/s and B = 3 m.

Q2 102
When y = 3 m, E y  3  3.063 m
2gA 2
2  9.81  3  3
2 2

Q2 102
When y = 1.2 m, E y  1.2   1.593 m
2gA 2
2  9.81  3  1.2
2 2

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

1.3 Calculation of Critical Depth

Critical depth can be determined by:

i. Trial and error; or

ii. Graphically

1.3.1 Critical Depth from Trial-and-Error

For all channel sections, during critical flow (E )

min
Q2Tc
3
1
gAc
is usually provided
3 2
Rewritten as a function of critical depth, A Q
c
Tc g
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

For rectangular channel, T = B and A = By

Ac3 Q2

Tc g

B3 y c3 Q2
becomes 
B g
Q2
y  2
3
c
Bg

Q q2
Since q yc  3 (only applies to rectangular channel)
B g

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Critical depth also occurs when q is maximum

q  2gy 2  E  y 

q 2  2gy 2  E  y 

Differentiating q with respect to y

dq
2q  2gy c  2Emin  3y c 
dy
dq
0 gives 2Emin  3yc  0
dy
3
Emin  y c (only applies to rectangular channel)
2

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Critical slope S is used to categorize the type of channel slope
c
Condition of So Type of slope
So = Sc Critical slope
So < Sc Mild slope
So > Sc Steep slope
Critical slope S can be calculated by equating Manning resistance flow equation to critical flow condition
c

Q2Tc
3
1
gAc
1 2
gAc3 1
At critical slope, S = S
o c
Q  Ac Rc3 Sc2
Tc n
n2gAc
Sc  4
3
TRc c
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.2

A 4.0 m wide rectangular channel conveys water to a reservoir. If the discharge in the channel Q = 25 m3/s and

Manning coefficient n = 0.02, find

(a) Critical depth

(b) Critical velocity

(c) Critical slope

Given Q = 25 m3/s, B = 4.0 m, n = 0.02

q2
(a) yc  3
g
2
25
yc  3  1.585 m
9.81  4 2

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Vc
(b) 1
gDc
Vc
1 (for rectangular section, D = y)
gy c

Vc  gy c  9.81  1.585  3.943 m/s

n2gAc
Sc 
(c)
4
3
TR
c c
2
n gy
Sc  4
c (for rectangular section, T = B)

3
R c
0.02  9.81  1.585
2
Sc  4  0.007328
 4  1.585  3
 
 4  2  1.585  BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.3

(a) An infinitely wide and straight river has a discharge of 5.0 m3/s/m.

Calculate:

(i) Critical depth

(ii) Froude number of the flow when the flow depth is 6.0 m and

determine the type of flow

(iii) Critical slope of the channel if Manning coefficient n = 0.0044.

(b) Based on the river characteristics given in (a), find the possible depth of flow y for the same specific energy and
2
the corresponding Froude number.

Given q = 5.0 m3/s/m, y = 6.0 m, n = 0.0044,

For infinitely wide channel R y

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 q 2 3 52
(a) (i) yc  3   1.366 m
g 9.81

(a) (ii) For rectangular section, D = y

V q 5
Fr     0.1086
gy gy 3
9.81  6 3

Fr  0.1086  1  subcritical flow

(a) (iii) For rectangular section, T = B

n2gy c n2g 0.00442  9.81

Sc  4
 1
 1
 0.0001712
3 3 3
R c y c 1.366

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

(b) Specific energy at y = 6 m
1

q2 52
E 1  y1  6  6.035 m
2gy12
2  9.81  6 2

The alternate depth of y = 6 m with E = E = 6.035 m is

1 2 1
2
q
y2  2
 6.035
2gy2
52
y2   6.035
2  9.81  y2
2

y2  0.4789 m

V q 5
At y = 0.4789 m,
2 Fr     4.817
gy gy 3
9.81  0.4789 3

Fr  4.817  1  supercritical flow

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.4

For a trapezoidal channel with bottom width B = 6 m and side slope z = 2, find the critical flow depth if the discharge is

17 m3/s using trial-and-error method.

Given Q = 17 m3/s, B = 6 m, z = 2

Ac3 Q2

Tc g
 6yc  2y c 
2 3

172
6  4 yc 9.81
 3y y 
c
2 3
 7.365
c
Q = 17 m3/s
1 y

3  2y c z=2

B=6m
From trial-and-error, y c  0.8468 m
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

1.3.2 Graphical Method

Ac3
Critical depth of flow y can be solved by plotting y against
c or Ac Dc
Tc

Activity 3.5

For a trapezoidal channel with bottom width B = 6 m and side slope z = 2, find the critical flow depth if the discharge is

17 m3/s graphically.

Given Q = 17 m3/s, B = 6 m, z = 2

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Ac3 Q2

Tc g
Ac3
 29.46 y (m)
Tc c
1.2
1.2
A  6 y c  2y
3 2 3
 1
Also, c
 c
1 0.8
Tc 6  4yc 0.84 m
0.6
0.8 0.4
yc (m) A /Tc
c
3
0.6 0.2
1 51.20 0.4
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2 571.43
0.2
0.5 5.36 29.46
Ac3
0.7 15.79 0
Tc
0.8 24.43 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

From the graph, y c  0.84 m

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

1.4 Control Sections

A control section is where for a given discharge Q, the flow depth y and velocity V are fixed.

The critical depth y is also a control point since at this section Fr = 1, effective when subcritical flow changes to
c
supercritical flow. When supercritical flow changes to subcritical flow, a hydraulic jumps usually bypass the critical depth

as control point.

A control section 'controls' the upstream or downstream flow.

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Examples of control sections:

(a) Flow from a mild channel to steep channel (b) A mild-slope channel discharging into a pool

M
2
M control
2 control
y
o
S y
y c
o 2
y
c Drop

Mild Pool
Steep y
o

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

(c) Free overflow (sudden drop) (d) Reservoir water flows on a steep slope

H
2 control
control
S
2
y
c y
c
Horizontal bed
Reservoir

Steep y
o

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 (e) Flow through sluice gate (f) Flow over spillway

control
M control
1 M
1

y Jump
o y
o y
y
c c
Mild
M Mild
control 3

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

(g) Flow over broad-crested weir (h) Flow through constricted channel width

control
control

y y
c c
H

Hump
Constriction

Plan view

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 1.5 Flow Over Broad-Crested Weir

Flow in a prismatic open channel is uniform if there is no obstruction e.g. of a hydraulic structure.

If broad-crested weir is installed, uniform flow changes to non-uniform flow. Changes to the water surface profile is

influenced by the weir height H and the flow condition before the weir (upstream flow), i.e. either supercritical or

subcritical.

0 1 2 3 y = normal depth of flow

o

y = depth of flow just before weir

1

y = depth of flow on the weir

2
y
o
y = depth of flow just after weir
H 3

Weir

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Minimum Height of Weir H
min
Height of weir H determines the depth of flow above the weir y , i.e. whether y = y or not.
2 2 c

H = minimum height of weir which will start to produce critical flow depth above the weir (y starts to
min 2
change to y )
c

Generally, depth of flow above the weir y is

2

If H H  y  y
min 2 c

If HH  y  y
min 2 c

If H H  y y
min 2 c

Therefore, y = y and E = E if H H

2 c 2 min min

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
H y H y H y
y  y  y
H H H H H H 1 3 o
min min min y =y 
or y  y  y or y  y  y or 1 1
1 3 o 1 3 o
y =y 
E  H  E y y E  H  E y y E  H  E 3 3
min o 2 c min o 2 c min o
Condition of y y
Submerged E  E  H Rarely E  E Control weir 2 c
upstream flow yo weir
2 o
occur
2 min
E E H
1,3 min
E  E
2 min
y y y y   y and y   y
c 2 o 1 o 3 c

Backwater
E E E E
2 min
Subcritical 2 min
E
yo  yc E
o y
2
y
E
y y y
E
o y y
y y
2 c
y o o 1
o 2 o 2 c
c
H y H
H c y
3
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

y y y y   y and y   y
o 2 c 1 c 3 o

E E
Supercritical E E
2 min
2 min
y o  yc
E
E 2 E E y y
o o o y
y y 1 2 c
y y 2 c
2 c Jump
H y H
y H y y c y
o o o 3
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Steps in Analysing Flow Over Broad-Crested Weir

1. Calculate y and y
o c
Determine state of upstream flow y , i.e. either subcritical or supercritical by comparing with y .
o c
If y  y  subcritical upstream
o c
If y  y  supercritical upstream
o c

2. Calculate H
min
By comparing height of weir H with H , the condition of flow over weir can be established, i.e.
min
If HH  Case 1
min
If HH  Case 2
min
If HH  Case 3
min

3. Determine y , y and y .
1 2 3

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Case 1: H  H
min y
10 y
E=
EGL
8

Subcritical y y y
1 63 o
upstream y  y

y (m)
E
o c E 2 4
o y y
y 2
o 2 y y
2

c c
y y y y 0
c 2 o c H 0 2 4 6 8 10
E (m)
E
0 1 2 3 E E E
min 2 o
H

H
y min
y
10
E=

EGL 8
Supercritical upstream
6
y y

y (m)
o c E
E 2 4
o
y
y y c 2
2 c y
y y y
o 2 c 2 0
y H y y 0 2 4 6 8 10
o 1,3 o E (m)
E
0 1 2 3 E E E
min 2 o

BFC21103 Hydraulics H
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
H
min
For Case 1,

HH
min Useful equations
H<E E Steps
o min All sections Rectangular section
E E E
1. Calculate yo 2 2
Qn Manning: y R 3  qn
1 3 o
Manning: AR 3 
y y and yc 1 o 1
2 c
So2 So2
Ac3 Q2 q2
 yc  3
Tc g g
2. Calculate Q2 q2
Hmin Eo  yo  Eo  yo 
2gA2 2gyo2
Q2 3
Emin  y c  Emin  y c
3. Determine 2gAyc  y  y 2
1 3 o
y1, y2 & y3 Hmin  Eo  Emin
E2 = E o  H

Q2 q2
y2   E2 y2   E2
2gA22
BFC21103 Hydraulics
2gy22
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
 Case 2: H  H
min y
10 y
E=
EGL 8

Subcritical E E y y y
2 min 1 63 o
upstream y  y

y (m)
o c 4
E
o y y y y y
o 2 c 2 c2
y y y 0
2 c o H 0 2 4 6 8 10
E (m)
E
0 1 2 3 E E E
2 min o

HH
min

y y
10
E=

EGL 8
Supercritical upstream
E E 6
y y

y (m)
2 min
o c
E 4
o
y y y  y2
2 c 2 c
y y y
0
2 c o H y y 0
y 2 4 6 8 10

o 1,3 o E (m)
E
0 1 2 3 E E E
2 min o

BFC21103 Hydraulics HH

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
min
For Case 2,

HH
min Useful equations
H E E Steps
min o min All sections Rectangular section
E E E
1. Calculate yo 2 2
Qn Manning: y R 3  qn
1 3 o
Manning: AR 3 
E E and yc 1 o 1
2 min
y y So2 So2
2 c
Ac3 Q2 q2
 yc  3
Tc g g
2. Calculate Q2 q2
Hmin Eo  yo  Eo  yo 
2gA2 2gyo2
Q2 3
Emin  y c  Emin  y c
3. Determine 2gAyc  y  y 2
1 3 o
y 1, y 2 & y 3 Hmin y E=oy Emin
2 c

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 y
y   y and y   y
1 o 3 c 10 y
EGL E=
8

Subcritical Backwater E E y y y

2 min 1 61 o
upstream y  y

y (m)
y
o c o 4
E y y
o y y y y
1 2 c 2 c2
o
y y y 0
2 c o y H y y 0 2 4 6 8 10
c y
y  y 3 3 o E (m)
E
1 o 0 1 2 3 E E E E
2 min o 1,3
y  y
3 c H
min
HH
min
y y
y   y and y   y E=
1 c 3 o y 10y   y
EGL 1 1 o
8
Supercritical upstream E E
2 min 6
y y

y (m)
o c 4
Jump y
E 1 y y
o 2 c y y
2 2c
y y y y
0
2 c o y H o
y c y y y 0 2 4 6 8 10
y  y o 3 3 o E (m)
E
1 o 0 1 2 3 E E E E E
y  y 2 min o 1 3
3 c
H
BFC21103 Hydraulics
min
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
HH
min
For Case 3,

HH
min Useful equations
HE E Steps
o min All sections Rectangular section
E  E  E
1. Calculate yo 2
Qn
2
Manning: y R 3  qn
1 3 o
Manning: AR 3 
y y and yc 1 o 1
2 c
So2 So2
Ac3 Q2 q2
 yc  3
Tc g g
2. Calculate Q2 q2
Hmin Eo  yo  Eo  yo 
2gA2 2gyo2
Q2 3
Emin  y c  Emin  y c
3. Determine 2ygA
1 c y3  yo 2
y1, y2 & y3 Hmin  Eo  Emin
E1,3 = Emin  H

Q2 q2
 
y1,3  E1 ,3  
y1,3  E1 ,3
2gA1 ,3
2
BFC21103 Hydraulics 2
2gy1,3
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Activity 3.6

10 m3/s of flow is conveyed in a rectangular channel of 4 m width, n = 0.015 and S = 0.0075. If a weir with height
o
0.92 m is built in the channel, determine the depth of flow on the weir.

Given Q = 10 m3/s, B = 4 m, n = 0.015, S = 0.0075, and H = 0.92 m

o

Step 1. Determine y and y

o c

2
qn
yoR  3
1
S 2
o

2 10   0.015
 4 yo   4 
y
3
yo   
 4  2 y o 
1
0.00752 B

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 2
 4 yo  3
yo    0.4330
 4  2y o 
yo  0.6804 m
2
 10 
q 2 3  4 
yc  3   0.8605 m y  y  supercritical flow
o c
g 9.81

Step 2. Calculate H
min 2
 10 
q2  
Eo  yo   0.6804  4  1.369 m
2gyo2
2  9.81  0.68042

3 3
Emin  y c   0.8605  1.291 m
2 2
Hmin  Eo  Emin  1.369  1.291  0.078 m
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Step 3. Determine y
2

Since H = 0.92 m  H = 0.078 m  Case 3 Hydraulic jump &

min
y  y  0.8605 m
2 c

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.7

A rectangular channel conveys flow at y = 1.6 m and R = 0.77 m on S = 1/3000 and Manning n  0.01.
o o

(a) What is the minimum height of weir to control the flow in the channel?

(b) Calculate depth of flow upstream, downstream and above the weir in (a).

(c) Calculate depth of flow upstream, downstream and above the weir if the height of weir is

(i) 0.4 m, and

(ii) 0.6 m.

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Given y = 1.6 m, R = 0.77, S = 1/3000, n  0.01
o o

(a) Step 1. Determine y and y

o c

yo  1.6 m
1
2 1 2
1
q  yoR S 
1 
 1.6  0.77  
1  2
  2.454 m /s/m
3 2 3 3
o
n 0.01  3000 
q 2 3 2.4542
yc  3   0.8499 m y  y  subcritical flow
o c
g 9.81

Step 2. Calculate H
min
2
q 2.4542
Eo  yo   1.6   1.720 m
2gyo2
2  9.81  1.6 2

3 3
Emin  y c   0.8499  1.275 m
2 2
Hmin  E o  Emin  1.720  1.275  0.445 m
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

(b) Step 3. Determine y , y & y .
1 2 3
In (a), H  H  Case 2.
min

For Case 2, y  y  y  1.6 m

1 3 o
y  y  0.8499 m
2 c

If H  0.4 m  H  0.445 m  Case 1

(c) (i)
min

For Case 1, y  y  y  1.6 m

1 3 o

E  E  H  1.72  0.4  1.32 m

2 o
2
q
y2  2
 E2
2gy2
2.4542
y2   1.32
2  9.81y2
2

Through trial-and-error, y  1.032 m or y  0.7085 m

2 2
Since y is subcritical, y  y  y , y  1.032 m
o o 2 c 2
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

(c) (ii) If H = 0.6 m  H  0.445 m  Case 3: Backwater
min

For Case 3, y  y  0.8499 m

2 c

E1 ,3  Emin  H  1.275  0.6  1.875 m

q2
 
y1,3  E1 ,3
2
2gy1,3
2.4542
 
y1,3  1.875

2  9.81y1,3
2

Through trial-and-error,

y  1.778 m and y  0.4669 m

1 3

since y  y and y  y
1 o 3 c

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

1.6 Flow Through Constricted Channel

If width of a prismatic channel is reduced/enlarged at a section, uniform flow changes to non-uniform flow. Changes to the water

surface profile is influenced by the width of constriction B and the flow condition before the constriction, i.e. either supercritical or
2
subcritical.

Since B < B , q > q

Plan view 2 o 2 o
2
V Q2
q q E  y   y1 
1 1
1
B B
2
2
2g 2gB12 y12
V22 Q2
E 2  y2   y2 
0 1 2 3 2g 2gB22 y22
Bed elevations at 1 and 2 are the same, E = E
1 2
qo2 Q2
q22 Side view
y y
yc2 3 2
2gyo2 2 B2g
2gy22 EGL
6 y c  Emin y
y 5 3 o
o
y 4
y
y2 2
y (m)

q y c 2
y q y q
o 1 2 y 3
2
1
2
0
q
0 10 20 30 40 50 o
BFC21103 Hydraulics
3
Q (m /s) q E
0 1 2 3 q q q
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my) o 2 max
Maximum Width of Constriction B
max
Width of constriction B determines the depth of flow at the constricted section y , i.e. whether y = y or not.
2 2 2 c2

B = maximum width of constriction which will start to produce critical flow depth at the constriction (y starts
max 2
to change to y )
c2

y or y = critical depth of flow along the unconstricted section

co c1

y = critical depth of flow at the constricted section.

c2

Generally, depth of flow at constriction y is

2

If B  B  y  y
2 max 2 c2

If B B  y  y
2 max 2 c2

If B  B  y  y > y
2 max 2 c2 c2
Therefore, y = y or y and E = E if B  B
2 c2 c2 2 min 2 max
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
B y B y B y
B  B y  y  y
B  B B  B 2 max 1 3 o
2 max or
2 max
y  y  y y  y  y y =y 
or or 1 1
1 3 o 1 3 o E  E
y y E E y y min 2 o y =y 
E  E 3 3
min 2 o 2 c2 min 2 o 2 c2 or
Condition of E  E or E  E =E y y
or 2 c2
2 o 2 min 2 o qq
upstream flow yo qq qq max E  E' E
max 1,3 min 2 o
max Control constriction
E  E'
2 min 2
y y y y   y and y   y
c2 2 o 1 o 3 c2

Backwater
E E E E  E
E E 2 min 2
Subcritical 2 o
2 min 2 o

yo  yco E
o y
E
y
E
o y y
o o 1
o y o y y y y
2 y 2 c2
y c2 y 2 c2
y
co co co y
3
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

y y y y   y and y   y
o 2 c2 1 c2 3 o

E  E
Supercritical E E
E E
2
E
min 2 o
2 min 2

yo  yco E
o
2 o E
o
E
o y
1
y y y y y y
y y 2 c2 Jump
co 2 c2 co y 2 c2
y y y co y
o o o 3
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Steps in Analysing Flow Through Constriction

1. Calculate y and y
o co
Determine state of upstream flow y , i.e. either subcritical or supercritical by comparing with y .
o co
If y  y  subcritical upstream
o co
If y  y  supercritical upstream
o co

2. Calculate y , q and B
c2 max max
When width of a channel is being constricted, y can be obtained since E = E . Once B is calculated, the
c2 min o max
condition of flow through the constriction can be established, i.e.

If B B  Case 1
2 max
If B B  Case 2
2 max
If B B  Case 3
2 max

3. Determine y , y and y .
1 2 3

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Case 1: B  B
2 max y
10 y
E=
EGL
8

Subcritical y y y
1 63 o
upstream y  y y

y (m)
E 2
o co E 2 4 B or q
o y max max
y c2
o y y
2
B or q
y 2 co 2 2
y y y y c2 0
B or q
c2 2 o co 0
E 2 4 6 8 10
o
E (m)
min o E
0 1 2 3 E E E E E
min 2 o 1 2 3

y
10 y
E=
EGL
8
Supercritical upstream
6
y y B or q

y (m)
o co E max max
E 2 y 4
o c2
y 2
y co B or q
y y y c2 y 2 2
o 2 c2 y 2 0
B or q
y co y y  y0  y 2 4 6 8 10
2 E (m)
o
o 1 3 o E
0 1 2 3 E E E E E E
min o min 2 o 1 2 3

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

For Case 1,

B B
2 max Steps Useful equations
E E
1. Calculate yo 2
Qn
2
or yoR 3  qn
min 2 o
E E
Manning: AR 3 
2 o
and yco 1 1

y y So2 So2
2 c2
q2
y co  3
g
2. Calculate q2 3
yc2, qmax and Eo  yo  ; E min  yc2
2gyo2 2
Bmax
2
qmax Q
yc2  3 ; qmax 
g Bmax
3. Determine y1  y3  y o
y1, y2 & y3 E2 = E o
q2
y2  2
 E2
2gy2
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Case 2: B  B
2 max y
10 y
E=
EGL
8

Subcritical y y y
1 63 o
upstream y  y

y (m)
E
o co 2 y y
E 2 4c2 B or q
o y max max
o y
2

y y co
y y y y 2 c2 0
B or q
2 c2 o co 0 2 4 6 8 10
o
E (m)
E
0 1 2 3 E E E
min o min 2 o

y
10 y
E=
EGL
8
Supercritical upstream
6
y y

y (m)
o co E B or q
E 2 y  y4 max max
o 2 c2
y 2
co
y y y y y y
2 c2 o co 2 c2
0
B or q
y y  y0  y 2 4 6 8 10
o
E (m)
o 1 3 o E
0 1 2 3 E E E
min o min 2 o

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

For Case 2,

B B
2 max Steps Useful equations
E E
1. Calculate yo 2
Qn
2
or yoR 3  qn
min 2 o
E E E
Manning: AR 3 
2 min 2 o
and yco 1 1

y y So2 So2
2 c2
q2
y co  3
g
2. Calculate q2 3
yc2, qmax and Eo  yo  ; E min  yc2
2gyo2 2
Bmax
2
qmax Q
yc2  3 ; qmax 
g Bmax
3. Determine y1  y3  y o
y1, y2 & y3 y2 = yc2

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 Case 3: B  B
2 max y
EGL 10 y
E=
E E y 8
Backwater 2 min
Subcritical 1
y
6
o
upstream y  y y  y

y (m)
o co E 2 4 c2
o y y B B
y 1 2 max
o y c22
y co B
y y y c2 y max
y 3 0
B or q
2 c2 o co y 0 2 4 6 8 10
o
E (m)
3 E
0 1 2 3 E E E
min o min 2 min 2

y
EGL 10 y
E=
E E 8
Supercritical upstream 2 min y
Jump 1 6
y y y  y

y (m)
o co 2 4c2
E y B B
o 1 2 max
y 2 B or q
y co max max
y y y y
c2 o 0
2 c2 o y y B or q
y co y 0 2 4 6 8 10
o
o 3 3 E (m)
E
0 1 2 3 E E E
min o min 2 min 2

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

For Case 3,

B B Steps Useful equations

2 max
1. Calculate yo 2
Qn
2
E E
min 2 o Manning: AR 3  or yoR 3  qn
and yco 1 1
E  E
2 min 2 So2 So2
y  y
q2
2 c2
y co  3
g
2. Calculate q2 3
yc2, qmax and Eo  yo  ; E min  yc2
2gyo2 2
Bmax
2
qmax Q
yc2  3 ; qmax 
g Bmax
3. Determine Q 2
qmax
y1, y2 & y3  
qmax ; y c 2  3
B2 g
3 2
qmax
  y c 2
Emin ;   y1,3
E1,3  
2 2
2gy1,3
y1  y3  yo ; y2 = yc2
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.8

A bridge is to be built across a 50-m wide rectangular channel carrying flow of 200 m3/s at depth 4.0 m. For

reducing the span of the bridge, what is the minimum width of channel such that the upstream water level will not

be influenced by the constriction?

Given Q = 200 m3/s, y = 4 m, B = 50 m

o

Step 1. Determine y and y

o co
y is influenced by q. When q changes, y varies
yo  4.0 m c c
as well. Therefore, at constriction where q  q ,
o
Q 200
qo    4.0 m3 /s/m y exists (calculated in Step 2).
c2
B 50
q 2 3 42
y co  3   1.177 m y  y  subcritical flow
o co
g 9.81
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Step 2. Calculate y and B
c2 max

Q2 42
Eo  yo  4  4.051 m
2 2
2gBo yo 2  9.81  4 2

At width B ,E E and q  q
max 2 min 2 max

With no energly loss, E  E , therefore

min o

2 2
y c 2  Emin   4.051  2.701 m
3 3
Also,

2
qmax
yc2  3 rearranging gives
g
qmax  gy c32  9.81  2.7013  13.90 m2 /s
Q Q 200
Since qmax   Bmax    14.39 m
Bmax qmax 13.9
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.9

A bridge is to be built across a 50-m wide rectangular channel carrying flow of 200 m3/s at depth 4.0 m. The

construction has caused the width of the channel to be reduced to 30-m. Determine the depth of flow upstream,

downstream and under the bridge.

Given Q = 200 m3/s, y = 4 m, B = 50 m

o

Step 1. Determine y and y (similar to the solution in Activity 3.8)

o co

yo  4.0 m
Q 200
qo    4.0 m3 /s/m
B 50
q 2 3 42
y co  3   1.177 m y  y  subcritical flow
o co
g 9.81
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Step 2. Calculate y and B (similar to solution in Activity 3.8)
c2 max

Q2 42
Eo  yo  4  4.051 m
2 2
2gBo yo 2  9.81  4 2

At width B ,E E and q  q
max 2 min 2 max

With no energly loss, E  E , therefore

min o

2 2
y c 2  Emin   4.051  2.701 m
3 3
Also,

2
qmax
yc2  3 rearranging gives
g
qmax  gy c32  9.81  2.7013  13.90 m2 /s
Q Q 200
Since qmax   Bmax    14.39 m
Bmax qmax 13.9
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Step 3. Determine y , y and y
1 2 3

Since B  30 m  B  14.39 m  Case 1

2 max

E2  Eo  4.051 m

At B  30 m,
2
Q2
y2  2 2
 E2
2gB2 y2
2002
y2   4.051
2  9.81  30  y2
2 2

From trial-and-error, y  0.8399 m or y  3.902 m

2 2

Since y  y , thus y  y  y . Therefore, y = 3.902 m

o co c2 2 o 2

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.10

A rectangular channel of 2.0 m width is required to convey 3 m3/s of flow. The normal depth is 0.8 m. At

downstream of the channel, the width of the channel is to be reduced.

(a) Determine the width of the maximum constriction for critical depth to occur.

(b) Calculate the depth of flow upstream, downstream and at the constriction if the constricted width is 1.2

m.

Given Q = 3 m3/s, B = 2.0 m, y = 0.8 m

o

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

(a) Step 1. Determine y and y
o co

yo  0.8 m
Q 3
qo    1.5 m3 /s/m
B 2
q 2 3 1.52
y co  3   0.6121 m Since y  y  subcritical flow
o co
g 9.81
Step 2. Calculate y and B
c2 max

qo2 1.52
Eo  yo   0.8   0.9792 m
2gyo 2
2  9.81  0.8 2

2 2
y c 2  Emin   0.9792  0.6528 m
3 3
qmax  gy c32  9.81  0.65283  1.652 m2 /s
Q 3
Bmax    1.816 m
qmax 1.652
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

(b) If B = 1.2 m,
2

B2  Bmax  1.816 m  Case 3, where new q

max
, i.e. q
max
is required

Step 3. Calculate y , y and y

1 2 3

Q 3
 
qmax   2.5 m2/s
B2 1.2

2
qmax 2.52
y2  y c 2  3 3  0.8605 m
g 9.81
3 3
  y c 2   0.8605  1.291 m
Emin
2 2

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

E1  E 3  Emin


qo2
 
y1,3 
 E1,3
2
2gy1,3
1.52
 
y1,3  1.291

2  9.81  y1,3
2

From trial-and-error, y  1.213 m and y  0.3489 m

1 3

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.11

Flow inside a rectangular channel of 3.0 m width has a velocity of 3.0 m/s at 3.0 m depth. The channel is

experiencing a step of 0.61 m high at the channel bottom. What is the constriction to be made to the channel width

in order to ensure the depth of flow upstream does not change.

Given V = 3 m/s, B = 3 m, y = 3 m, and H = 0.61 m

o
Thus, q = y V = 3 3 = 9 m2/s
o

Step 1. Determine y and y

o co

yo  3.0 m

q 2 3 92
y co  3   2.021 m Since y  y  subcritical flow
o co
g 9.81
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Step 2. Calculate H
min

q2 92
Eo  yo   3  3.459 m
2gyo2
2  9.81  32

3 3
Emin  y c   2.021  3.032 m
2 2
Hmin  Eo  Emin  3.459  3.032  0.427 m

Step 3. Determine y , y and y

1 2 3

Since H  0.61 m  H  0.427 m

min

 Case 3: Backwater upstream of weir

E1 ,3  Emin  H  3.032  0.61  3.642 m

In order to maintain the same specific energy and reduce y to y , q has to be increased, i.e. via
1 o
width constriction.

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 y (m)

y   y and y   y
1 o 3 c 10 y
EGL
E=
8

Backwater E 3.032 m y y y

min 1 1 o
6

y (m)
E = y =3.459
4
o o
y =2.021 m
3.459 m y c y =2.0212
3m 1 c
0
y =2.021 m 0.61 m y y 0 2 4 6 8 10
c y
3 3 o E (m)
E (m)
0 1 2 3 E E E E
2 min o 1,3

H =0.427 m
min
H=0.61 m

y (m)

y   y and y   y
1 o 3 c 10 y
EGL
E=
8

Backwater E 3.032 m y y y

min 1 1 o
6

y (m)
E = y =3.459
4
o o
y =2.021 m y
3.459 m y c y =2.0212
3m 1 c2
c
0
y =2.021 m 0.61 m y y 0 2 4 6 8 10
c y
3 3 o E (m)
E (m)
0 1 2 3 E E E E E
2 min o 1,3 1,3

H =0.427 m
min
BFC21103 Hydraulics
H=0.61 m
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
   E1 ,3  3.642 m
Emin

2 2
   3.642  2.428 m
y c 2  Emin
3 3

qmax  gy c32  9.81  2.4283  11.85 m2 /s

Q 3 3 3
Bmax    2.278 m
qmax 11.85

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 y (m)

10 y
EGL
E=
8

E 3.642 m
min y = y =3.459
6
1 o

y (m)
E = 4
o y =2.021
y =2.428 m c2
3.459 m 3m y =3 m c2 2
1
y 0
y =2.021 m 0.61 m 3 0 2 4 6 8 10
c y
E (m)
3 E (m)
0 1 2 3 E E E
o min 1,3

H =0.427 m
min

Plan view H=0.61 m

q q
B=3 m o 2 B =0.7595 m
2

0 1 2 3

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Activity 3.12

A rectangular channel of 2.6 m width with Manning n = 0.015, and longitudinal slope of 0.0008 is conveying flow at

9.8 m3/s. If a constriction is made by reducing channel width to 2.4 m, calculate depth of flow upstream and

downstream of the constriction. Sketch the flow surface profile.

Given Q = 9.8 m3/s, B = 2.6 m, B = 2.4 m, n = 0.015, S = 0.0008

2 o

Step 1. Determine y and y

o co

2
Qn
AR 3
1
S 2
o
2
 2.6yo  9.8  0.015
3
2.6yo   
 2.6  2yo 
1
0.00082
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 2
 2.6yo  3
2.6yo    5.197
 2.6  2yo 
Through trial-and-error, yo  2.270 m
2
 9.8 
q 2 3  2.6 
y co  3   1.131 m Since y  y  subcritical flow
o co
g 9.81

Step 2. Calculate y and B

c2 max
2
 9.8 
qo2  
Eo  yo   2.27   2.6   2.411 m
2gy o2
2  9.81  2.272

B is when q = q , where E =E
max max min o

2 2
y c 2  Emin   2.411  1.607 m
3 3
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 qmax  gy c32  9.81  1.6073  6.381 m2 /s
Q 9.8
Bmax    1.536 m
qmax 6.381
 Case 1, where
When B = 2.4 m,
2 B2  Bmax  1.536 m E <E
min2 o
E =E
2 o

Step 3. Calculate y , y and y

1 2 3

y = y = y = 2.270 m
1 3 o

Q 9.8
q2    4.083 m2 /s
B2 2.4

q 2 3 4.0832
y co  3   1.193 m
g 9.81
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

 q22
E2  y2 
2gy22
EGL

4.0832
y2   2.411
2  9.81  y2
2
E =
o y =2.270m
o
E
2
y =2.242m
2.411 m 2
y =
c2
0.8497 y =1.193m 1.607m

y2   2.411
co

2
y2 0 1 2 3

Through trial-and-error,

y2  2.242 m or y2  0.7059m
Since it is subcritical upstream, y2  2.242 m

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

1.7 Choking

Choking of flow occurs when

H  Hmin of a broad-crested weir in an open channel

B2  Bmax at the constricted width in an open channel

i.e. when the specific energy or depth of flow immediately upstream of the weir or constriction increases or is being

controlled.

Choked conditions are undesirable in the design of culverts and other surface drainage features involving channel

transitions.

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Assignment #3

Q1. (a) Critical depth occurs in an open channel when the specific energy is minimum. Sketch the

corresponding flow depth versus specific energy graph. From this concept, derive the general equation used to

determine critical flow depth in an open channel.

(b) A rectangular channel 3.05 m wide carries 3.4 m3/s uniform flow at a depth of 0.6 m. A 0.2 m-high weir

is placed across the channel.

(i) Does the weir cause hydraulic jump upstream of the weir? Provide reason why.

(ii) Calculate the flow depth above the weir, and just upstream of the weir. Classify the surface

profile of flow upstream of the weir. Sketch the resulting flow-surface profile and energy line, showing

the critical depth y and normal depth y .

c o

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan Lai Wai (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

Q2. (a) An engineer is to analyze flow in an open channel in which the channel is designed to be constricted by placing bridge

embankment at both sides of the channel. Explain the consequences due to the constriction.

(b) An 8-m wide rectangular channel is conveying flow uniformly at a rate of 18.6 m3/s and depth of 1.2 m. A temporary

short span bridge is to be built across the channel in which bridge embankment is needed at both sides of the channel causing

the channel to be constricted under the proposed bridge.

(i) Calculate the maximum channel width under the proposed bridge which will not cause backwater

upstream.

(ii) If the channel width under the proposed bridge is 4 m due to the unavoidable condition, calculate the

expected flow depth under the bridge, at just upstream and just downstream of the bridge.

(iii) If the flow depth just upstream of the proposed bridge is to be limited to 0.2 m higher than the normal

depth, calculate the channel width under the bridge.

- End of Question -
BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan Lai Wai (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)

THANK YOU

BFC21103 Hydraulics

Tan Lai Wai (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)