School of Natural Resources: Rural Sociology and Extension

UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY
AND NATURAL
RESOURCES
SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCES
RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND EXTENSION
Anthony Baidoo
Dr. Simon Abugre
Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-
06/14/2020 2
UENR
Sociology
• Social life or society is a complex phenomenon with a multitude of intricacies or phases
or dimensions such as economic, political, legal, educational, and cultural and so on. All
social sciences except sociology study social life or society focusing only on a particular
dimension or phase of human life and thus they have become specialized social sciences.
• Thus, economics deals with economic activities such as production, distribution and
consumption of goods and services. Political science studies political activities and
institutions. History studies significant events and personages that have affected the flow
of human life in a chronological order. Psychology studies development of human mind
and its influence on human behaviours. Anthropology studies man in terms of physical,
cultural and social characteristics. Ethics studies morals governing human behaviours.

06/14/2020 3
UENR
Sociology Cont’d
• Sociology may be defined as the scientific or systematic study of human behaviour in
group relationships. Sociology studies human behaviour in relation to groups with whom
he interacts. The essentials are that man does not live in isolation. He lives in physical and
social proximity to other human beings. He is gregarious, relates to other people, and
identifies with other people.
• The common idea underlying sociology is concerned with human relationships. Its
subject matter is society rather than the individual, though the individual cannot be left
out. Since human life became complex, there was the need for an in-depth study of each
aspect of human life. Thus, sociology has been further divided into different applied
branches, namely; Rural Sociology, Urban Sociology, Political Sociology, Educational
Sociology, etc.
06/14/2020 4
UENR
Rural Sociology
•The major portion of the world’s population lives in villages and follows agriculture and allied
activities. The way of life of rural people is deeply influenced by the rural environment. Thus,
rural sociology being an applied branch of sociology analyses the way of life of rural people.
•Definitions:
•1. ‘Rural sociology is the study of human relationships in rural environment.’ – Bertrand.
•2. ‘Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural people in group relationships.’ – E.M. Rogers.
•3. ‘Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural social relationships.’ – Lynn smith.
•4. ‘Rural sociology is the study of laws governing rural life and development.’ – A.R. Desai.
•Although the definitions vary in their focus, the common idea underlying them is that rural
sociology studies life and activities of rural people i.e., rural social processes, social patterns and
social organizations.

06/14/2020 5
UENR
Characteristics of Rural People and Rural Life
1. General environment and orientation to nature:

• By their geographic location in rural areas, rural people are
closely related to nature.
• They have to contend with the natural elements – rain, heat,
drought, floods, etc. these elements influence their behaviour or
general life style. Their beliefs, convictions, philosophies are
based on the natural elements e.g. superstitions worship or
nature, etc.
• Very different from urban dwellers who have some control of the
natural elements.
06/14/2020 6
UENR
Characteristics of Rural People and Rural
Life Cont’d
2. Occupation
• Major occupation is that of agriculture – perceived largely as a way of
life, though commercial agriculture is also widespread
• Others are dependence on collection of natural resources – collection
of snails, hunting for game, fruits, etc.
• Secondary vocations also exist – tailors, teachers, and artisans.
3. Size of community
• Rural community is always smaller that the urban. There is higher
land-to-man ratio, and thus low population with comparatively larger
land area for agriculture.
06/14/2020 7
UENR
Life Cont’d
4. Population density
• Comparatively low population density. Density of population and
rurality are negatively correlated.
5. Homogeneity
• The people are more homogenous. There is similar social,
psychological characteristics – similar behavioral patterns, language,
beliefs, mores are more homogenous compared to urban. Urban areas
are heterogeneous in these aspects since people have come from many
different areas to settle in the city. This homogeneity in behaviour may
work positively or negatively towards adoption of innovations.
06/14/2020 8
UENR
Life Cont’d
6. Social differentiation
• Low degree of social differentiation in the rural area. There’s little
division of labour. Most people do the same jobs. Urban areas show high
degree of differentiation – in jobs, educational, recreational facilities, etc.
7. Social stratification
• Rural area is less stratified in terms of occupation, economic, socio-
political characteristics. There is little variation in wealth or social class.
e.g. most people may be poor. There is also little social mobility (e.g.
moving from a lower class to a higher class) since most people have
similar human and material resources
06/14/2020 9
UENR
Life Cont’d
8. Social interactions
• Rural people have greater face to face contacts than urban people. The smallness of the area and
low population makes the people closer to each other. Each person knows almost everyone. A
stranger is easily spotted. Information from person to person therefore spreads faster in the rural
that the urban community.
9. Social control
• Social pressure in the rural area is quite strong because of strong sense of group membership.
People are forced to conform to the social norms. If they deviate, they are sanctioned. If an
innovation is adopted by the influential people, the likelihood of it being adopted by most
people is great because of social pressure on the non-adopters who may be viewed as deviants
and sanctioned.


06/14/2020 10
UENR
Life Cont’d
10. Standard of living
• Quite low in the rural area. Quality of housing, physical infrastructure
such as roads, schools, health facilities is low. Modern home
equipment – TV’s, cookers, fridges etc are often lacking.
12. Leadership pattern:
• Traditional rulers e.g. chiefs hold the power and have influence on the
acceptance or rejection of innovations. They must be recognized and
their assistance sought in facilitating the adoption of new technology.

06/14/2020 11
UENR
Characteristics of Rural People And Rural
Life Cont’d
12. Social solidarity
• In rural areas, cohesion and unity results from shared common
traits, experiences, common objectives, informal personal
relationships. In urban areas, unity is arrived from division of
labour, specialization
• These characteristics of rural people and the rural area influences

among other factors, how rural people respond to innovations –
such as those contour farming, taungya farming and planting in
lines.
06/14/2020
12
UENR
Behaviour of Rural People
Rural people have some of the following behaviours or characteristics.
• Familism: Rural people have a strong orientation towards their
families and relatives. Individual goals are subordinated to those of the
family (This means family goals are put ahead of individual goals).
There is unwillingness to engage in economic activities with people
outside one’s family.
• Fatalism (Fatalistic): Rural people are said to be very fatalistic. There
is resignation to fate, passivity and there is the feeling that one lacks
the ability to influence the future. There is the feeling that the outside
world is unpredictable and cannot be understood.
06/14/2020 13
UENR
Behaviour of Rural People
• Low empathy: there is the inability to see one self in a different role or see
one self in a relatively better off position and so individuals may not make
serious effort to get out of the poverty cycle.
• Fear of risk: Rural people are often unwilling to take chances or to
experiment or venture out beyond their social consequences attached to
failure.
• Traditionalism/ethnocentrism: Rural people are very traditionalist in their
approach and emphasize on the past, preserve it and continue with it. There
is the belief that one’s way of doing things is natural and the best, this is
called ethnocentrism. People tend to look down on ideas and technologies
from another culture and are usually unwilling to adopt new things.
06/14/2020 14
UENR
Social Control
• The mechanisms by which a society gets its members to behave
according to its norms and thereby maintains order and stability is
known as social control. The society initiates sanctions and rewards
for doing the right things and various form of punishment (negative
sanctions) for those who violate the Norms.
• This mechanism of social control directly influences the individual to

do what is approved by the society and by this the society can
maintain social order and stability.

06/14/2020 15
UENR
Forms of social control
• There are two forms of social control: Formal and Informal. Informal
measures take the forms of gossiping, frowning, scolding, ridiculing, etc.
to register one’s disapproval of the deviant behaviour. Fear of social
rejection makes people conform to the social norms.
• Formal social control involves the use of specific agencies set up to

enforce conformity to the norms. They become necessary when informal
social controls are no longer effective. Agencies such as traditional
courts, the police, army, the law courts, tribunals, prisons, are charged
with the enforcement of social control in larger communities.

06/14/2020 16
UENR

Social Deviance
• Social deviance arises from under and over conformity to normative social
behaviour. Under conformity shows one who falls short of some expected
social behaviours, whiles an over conformity is the one who beliefs that
social norms falls below expectations and he tries to achieve something
even beyond conformity. We can define social deviance as an abnormal
behaviour caused by the failure of a person to conform to societal norms
and values.
• Individuals who break away from the expected normal behaviour and
persist in that are regarded as DEVIANTS (i.e. they deviate from the
normal behaviour.
06/14/2020 17
UENR
Social Deviance
• Deviancy has both advantages and disadvantages. some level of deviancy is
normal and desirous in any society. Some deviancy is absolutely essential for
progress in every society. Individuals who dare to violate the societies’ most
treasured norms are perceived as deviants. Some of such people who are brave to
try new things and are not afraid of being ridiculed can be important for initiating
social change.
• For example, Nelson Mandela who fought for equality of all races in South Africa
was perceived as a social deviant by the Whites because it was against the White
South African norms for a black man for dare to protest against racial inequality.

06/14/2020 18
UENR
Social Deviance
• In the rural areas deviancy is a lesser problem because people are brought up under the same
cultural elements. Being a small society, deviant behaviour is easily noticed and sanctioned.
This makes it difficult for people to continue with any deviant behaviour.
• Deviant behaviour may be perceived as either positive or negative or both. For example:
1. Innovators – whose behaviour is perceived as deviant, introduce innovations into the
society which usually have positive consequences for the society. Adoption of new farming
practices such as planting new varieties of crops or using new planting methods may
constitute deviant behaviour in the rural society but results in increased yields.
2. Rebels – rebellious behaviour by rebels in the society may have either positive or negative
consequences.
3. Retreaters – individuals who withdraw from the society for one reason or the other show a
retreatist behaviour which is often negative
4. Ritualist – individuals who stick rigidly to established behaviours and refuse to change
when most of society members have accepted the change
06/14/2020 19
UENR
Social Status
• The status of an individual or group of people within a society refers to either a
ranking based on a specific criterion such as income or to the overall ranking of
the unit of the individual or the group etc. sociologist are concerned with status
that reflects the power, privilege or prestige of individuals or groups of
individuals.
• The status of an individual indicates also the role he is expected to play. In

some societies, it is possible to change the status of the individual’s occupation.
In such a situation it is referred to as mobility which could be upwardly or
downwardly mobile. For example when a person is promoted, he is upwardly
mobile and when your fortune dwindles you are downwardly mobile.

06/14/2020 20
UENR
Social Class
• This refers to a group of people who have similar status. In this, we can talk
of upper, middle and even breaking down into lower middle or upper middle
etc. The term class is therefore applied to an aggregation of people who
have similar access or standing or similar position, occupation of anything
that affects their access to power, privilege or prestige.
• Within the rural communities, the royals may be seen within the class ladder
at the top with the common people at the bottom. We may also speak of
literates and illiterates within the society. It is important to be aware of the
various classes that exist in the community because they contribute to the
social structure and how things are organized within the society.
06/14/2020 21
UENR
Social Stratification
• The arrangement of individuals or groups into a hierarchy represents a
stratification system in a community. If all the classes in the society are put
together e.g. occupational classes, we get what is known as “A system of
stratification”. This is at the same time referred to as the Distributive
system of the society.
• Social stratification develops as a result of inequalities that exist among
people in a society. These inequalities are based on differences in various
material and non-material things possessed by individuals such as:
• Ownership of land, Family wealth or money, Level of Education, Types of
occupation, Skills, Personal qualities (such as complexion, physique,
charisma, looks), Age, Gender, Ethnicity etc.
06/14/2020 22
UENR
Social Power
• Knowledge of the existing social power or the power structure in a
community can greatly help a person who is concerned about
developing programmes to bring about change in a rural community.
Power actors or community leaders give legitimization to programmes
that are introduced.
• In many cases without their support and co-operation, it is very

difficult if not impossible to mobilize the community for the
acceptance of programme of changes. The concept of social power is
therefore an important dimension of community leadership.
06/14/2020 23
UENR
Ways of determining who has power:
• There are three methods:

• Reputational method:
• This is based on asking people in the community to identify the
influential person or persons. E.g. people might be asked who has high
esteemed or prestige, whose opinion or word is highly regarded or
whose approval is essential for a particular activity in the community.
• Positional approach:
• This equates the position of title of the person with his influence and it
assumes that people in hereditary, appointed or elected positions are
influential. E.g. chiefs, assembly men etc.
06/14/2020 24
UENR
Ways of determining who has power:
• Decision method:
• Here we establish power and influence by examining which people are
instrumental in decisions that are made in the community, especially
major decisions. For example, in asking who is instrumental in
bringing water, electricity, hospital, KVIP, etc. to the community.

06/14/2020 25
UENR
Issues to remember when examining power and influence in a community:
1. Power and influence may not lie so much in the hands of the individuals
but certain groups or organizations.
2. That the structure of power and influence change over time and it should
not be assumed that the powerful people of today were also influential in
the past.
3. That there are limits to power and influence and certain things can be done
in the community without the support of people in power. Though it will be
considerably difficult, it is possible to avoid some leaders.
4. Influential or powerful people in one area or community are not necessarily
be influential in all others e.g. some may be religious in their influence but
not in other fields like health or agriculture.
06/14/2020 26
UENR
Socialization
• Socialization is the term used to describe the ways in which people or

individuals learn to conform to their society’s norms and thereby play
their roles effectively. Through this process the individuals learns the
culture and can therefore behave according to the cultural norms.
Socialization also enables culture to be transmitted from one
generation to the next.
• Through socialization, the identity of that society is maintained as well

as all the productive activities that ensures the survival of the society.

06/14/2020 27
UENR
Socialization
• Socialization is divided into three major phases. That’s- primary,
secondary, and adult socialization. It requires agents which are termed
Agents of Socialization.
• The agents of socialization are the individuals or social groups or a

unit. e.g. the family or the school that helps them to teach a new
member what needs to be learned and the contents of socialization are
actually the things that are taught.

06/14/2020 28
UENR
Failures of socialization
• If socialization fails the individual is unable to perform his role to the
satisfaction of society. Such a person will have problems with other
people. E.g. he may be perceived to be antisocial; he may not be
employable as he has no skill. He may be unable to feed himself and
to provide for others.
• Some of these people become deviants, e.g. Criminals, thieves, drug

addicts some eventually end up in prisons which are actually
institutions for reforming social deviants

06/14/2020 29
UENR
Failures of socialization
• In extreme cases where children are raised outside human
society they become totally unfit to live in society. The
individual becomes a feral child.
• E.g. a child was discovered by police in South Africa in

1990 having been raised in a dog’s kennel, by his white
parents. He was kept in the kennel with a dog for six years.
When discovered, the boy could only bark and eat and like a
dog and could not talk at all.
06/14/2020 30
UENR
Culture
• In everyday’s speech, the word culture refers to things like music,

dancing, art, the style of dressing etc. but in sociology, culture means
more than this. It is a basic concept in sociology.
• In simple terms, culture consists of all the ways in which a society’s

members think about their society and communicate about it among
themselves. It constitutes in totality the way of life of the people.

06/14/2020 31
UENR
Culture can be defined in number of ways:
• Culture constitutes all the modes of thought, behaviour and production that are handed down from
one generation to the next by means of communicative interaction that is by speech, gestures,
writings, buildings and all communication among humans rather than hereditary or genetic
definition. This definition includes a vast array of behaviour, technologies, artifacts, religion and so
on.
• Culture is an organization of phenomena, acts, object ideas (beliefs, norms, etc) and sentiments
(attitudes and values). These aspects can distinguish one culture from the other e.g. Fantes from
Gas, Dagombas from Ewes, etc. Some writers e.g. Ogburn divides culture into two viz: Material
and non-material culture.
• Material culture consist of all the physical features that the people created, possessed and used e.g.
cars, ports, umbrellas, working tools, furniture, ornaments etc.
• Non-material culture includes all aspects of culture that are not tangible e.g. music, ideas,
sentiments. Among the ideas are the ways of thinking of the society.
06/14/2020 32
UENR
Characteristics of culture:
1. Culture is learned, transmitted, dynamic and shared

2. Culture is gratifying that is it satisfies the people, their biological and
socio-cultural needs.
3. Culture is adaptive – it adjusts itself to external forces and so it can
undergo changes as new things come into the culture and some die
out.
4. Culture is integrative, that is, it pulls the people together and holds
them as a society.
5. Culture tends to build ideas for conformity and simplifies behaviour in
the society through the institution norms.
06/14/2020 33
UENR
Elements of culture
• There are 3 elements of every culture. These are norms, values, beliefs.
• Social norms:
• These are the accepted forms of behaviour in any social situation. Social norms guide social
behaviour and hence make us understand to be able to describe and predict what could happen
under certain social conditions. Social norms give regularity to social behaviour. This is important
to individuals to know how to behave in certain situations. It is when one knows how to behave
appropriately others will accept one as part of the society. There are different types of norms with
varying degrees of importance. These are mores, folkways and laws.
• Mores are rules of behaviour that are considered very important and whose violation would
endanger the basic stability, violation of mores are heavily punished by society.
• Folkways consist of etiquette and customs not of critical importance. When people violate such
norms, no great punishment is meted out to them but they may be laughed at e.g. wearing your
cloth the opposite way or planting crops in what other people would regard as foolish.
• Laws are norms set up and enforced by the state. Mores become law more often than folkways.
E.g. of laws: All mineral resources belong to the state.
06/14/2020 34
UENR
Social Values
• These are shared ideas as to what people consider to be important or

not, good or bad, desirable of undesirable. Social values are important
because they help us (both individually and as society) select goals or
give kind of direction as to what to look for in life.
• Social values help to establish social order in society. E.g respect for
others, truth, sharing, equal opportunity etc.

06/14/2020 35
UENR
Social beliefs
• These are ideas accepted by the members of the society to be true. It matters not
whether these ideas are true or false. The important thing is people act according
to what they believe are true. There are two kinds of beliefs – superstitious beliefs
and taboos. The former are usually the result of ignorance or for fear of the
unknown, while the latter are object or practices forbidden because of the beliefs
associated with them. There are a number of superstitions about tree planting.
• Social beliefs may change, but usually very slowly. In many cases, it is important
to take such beliefs into consideration when trying to introduce innovations in
certain aspects or practices of society. If an innovation is in conflict with the
beliefs or the taboo, it certainly will be rejected by the people and much work will
have to be done to overcome resistance to the innovation.
06/14/2020 36
UENR
Cultural changes:
• Culture as stated earlier is dynamic and changes overtime. Quite a number of factors
influence cultural change and these include the following:
1. Geographical factors: Changes in the geography of the area e.g. climate changes e.g.
changes in temperature, rainfall, wind speed etc. will influence people to adapt their way
of life by evolving ways of dealing with problems brought about by climatic changes.
2. Isolation: when a group of people become isolated and live together for a long time,
there are observed changes in their language, production methods, their values, beliefs
etc. which will make them different from their original culture.
3. Presence of innovators - the presence of people, who bring about new ideas into the
society, results in cultural change. E.g. new ideas, new technologies, new objects etc.
brings in a new way of life into the society.
4. Contact with other cultures – when two cultures are in contact, there is exchange of
cultural ideas, cultural objects etc. some aspects of culture e.g. language, ideas, beliefs,
norms and material objects are borrowed from one culture into another.
06/14/2020 37
UENR
Cultural changes:
5. Transport and communications – this brings culture together. It enables people to meet
physically or through any other communicative means and these results in cultural
interchange.
6. Education – there is a lot of cultural adoption through formal education. E.g. introduction
of western education into Ghana has led to the adoption of several aspects of European
culture such as the English language, the wearing of shirts, trousers etc. instead of wearing
animal skins.
7. Religion – it also brings about cultural change because it embodies its own beliefs, values
and norms e.g. the introduction of Christianity brought along with it changes in the life style
of our people e.g. wedding, form of praying, church music, Christmas and Easter festivals.
8.Natural and Man-made disasters – in the event of disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, floods and drought and also wars, societies and find ways of adapting to the
problem by evolving new ways of survival which brings changes in the societies culture.
06/14/2020 38
UENR
Some terminologies associated with culture change :
• Acculturation – this occurs when people of one culture incorporates

norms, values, beliefs, ideas and objects from one culture into their
own.
• Assimilation – this is the process by which culture or society adopt
some of the cultural traits such as language, values and norms, etc. of
the host culture and thereby gain equal access into that culture’s
institutions e.g. with reference to status and occupation. Examples are
the assimilation policy of the French people through which Africans
could be accepted into French society including their parliament.

06/14/2020 39
UENR
Some terminologies associated with culture
change Cont’d :
• Accommodation – it occurs when a smaller, less dominant or less
powerful culture is able to preserve its culture even after prolonged
contact with a larger and more powerful culture. That is, the smaller
culture is able to accommodate the culture of the bigger one but still
being able to maintain its cultural identity.
• Counter culture – this culture develops if a distinct people fail to
assimilate fully and further challenges the accepted norms and values
of the larger society. This brings about problems between the counter-
culture and the larger or the host society. Example is the Gay society
(homosexuals and lesbians), drug addicts, the Mafia, Neo-Nazis etc.

06/14/2020 40
UENR
Some terminologies associated with culture
change Cont’d :
• Ethnocentrism – this is the tendency of a person to consider his own culture as being
of higher value and superior to all others and also to judge other cultures using the
standards and values of his own culture. Ethnocentrism is found in all cultures but it
varies in degrees of intensity being very high in some cultures and low in others.
Quite often people of one culture will value themselves higher than others based on
access to certain resources.
• E.g. if their culture is wealthier, they tend to down grade the other culture that is not
wealthy. Ethnocentrism has both positive and negative aspects. On the positive side,
it enables the individual to take pride in his culture and this makes him to defend and
to maintain cultural identity. It can also inspire competitive attitude and spirit which
can help people of that culture to advance ahead of others. On the negative side,
ethnocentrism can bring about disagreements, quarrels, enmity, discrimination and
even war between ethnic groups.
06/14/2020 41
UENR
Social institutions –
• Every society, in order to ensure its survival has over long periods
of time evolved social mechanisms (based on interrelationship of
its members) to provide for basic needs of the society.
• These mechanisms are referred to as social institutions. These
institutions are based on culturally accepted roles and norms
(codes of conducts) values and beliefs which societies members
are required to uphold. If this is done, it makes it possible for that
social institution to provide a basic need of the society which
ensures stability and survival. Some of these institutions are:

06/14/2020 42
UENR
1. The family institution – for procreation, primary

socialization, disposal of the dead.
2. Economic institution – provides for the physiological needs
of the body e.g. farming and industry to provide food,
clothing, and shelter.
3. Educational institution – provides for socialization of
individuals to fit them into society for effective performance
of their roles e.g. schools.
06/14/2020 43
UENR
4. Institution of Government – to provide for law and order,
settlement of disputes, administration of affairs etc.
5.Religion - Man’s relations with supernatural forces/beings –
God, gods, etc.
• We now take closer look at the socio-economic
characteristics of the rural family. This refers to how the rural
family is socially set up and its ways of production of the
goods and services needed for its survival.

06/14/2020 44
UENR
The Structure and Relations of the Family
The family is the basic unit of the society, it is the basic unit of the
society, and it is the primary institution through which the individual
joins the society. The family may be nuclear or extended:
Nuclear – consisting of husband, wife and children (conjugal)
Extended: founded blood ties (consanguine) of a large number of people

related by blood extending over several generations. Both extended and
nuclear families occur in the rural area.

06/14/2020 45
UENR
Cont’d
While the extended family is the custodian of the family lands, nuclear families acquire
and hold own lands purchased or obtained through share cropping systems etc. family
heads are usually the final authority as far as land use is concerned.
Whether tree planting or Agro forestry will be adopted depends on the decision making
authority: - the nuclear family head or the extended family head and his elders.
Marriage: As well known, the common forms of marriage practiced in Ghana are:
Polygamy – Marriage of more than one wife
Monogamy - marriage of one wife
06/14/2020 46
UENR
Cont’d
• Endogamy – marrying within a particular family, this is practiced quite often
to ensure property e.g. land is not lost from the family, or is consolidated.
• Exogamy – where family norms encourage marrying outside the group to
which he/she belongs.
• Power/decision making in the family
• There are 3 main variations:
• Patriarchal – where power resides in father
• Matriarchal – where power resides in mother e.g. single parent.
• Egalitarian – both husband and wife have equal power in decision making

06/14/2020 47
UENR
Cont’d
• Functions of the family:
Sex regulation
Reproduction
Socialization – learning of beliefs, values, norms, roles
Provision of emotional needs – love, security
Provision of identify – who is he?
Family name, social status, etc.
• The family has secondary institutions such as those of engagement, marriage,
courtship, each with a set of acceptable behaviours which members are
expected to abide by.
06/14/2020 48
UENR
Migration and its implications for land use and management
• Migration is the physical movement of people from one area to

another either for temporal or permanent settlement. Migration has
both positive and negative consequences on the society into which
migrants are moving out of, and also on those they are moving into.
Migration has consequences on land, its use and management and the
availability of natural resources such as vegetation, trees, etc. to the
people in a community.

06/14/2020 49
UENR
Types of migration:
• Rural-rural – e.g. from one village to another
• Rural-urban – e.g. from village to city
• Urban-rural –from city to village
• Urban-urban – from city to city
• Migration may be regarded as being on short term, (residence for a
season, a year) medium term (a few years) long term (extended stay for
several years). While migration results on one hand in the buildup of
population in on e area, it leads to depletion in population in the other
i.e. increase and decrease in population pressure with consequences on
the land and agriculture.
06/14/2020 50
UENR
Extension Education
• According to R. N. Ferquiher, Extension is a service or a system which

assist people or community to improve farming methods and techniques
aimed at increasing production efficiency, better income and to ensure a
better level of living and lifting the social, education and standard of
living.
• Agricultural extension as a disciple involves the training of people in the

concepts, principles and procedures involved in learning from and
impacting scientific knowledge to farmers and farming communities. As a
process and a service it tries to influence the behaviour of farmers and
other rural people through informal education and information exchange.
06/14/2020 51
UENR

The need for rural sociology in extension education
1. It helps to understand how rural people function in their

community (i.e. how they work, live, why they behave the way
they do etc.). this helps to relate as well as work with them
2. Helpful in knowing how to introduce innovation into the rural
area (what extension method would be appropriate to the
community
3. Helps as to know that different people exist and they respond
differently to new ideas (innovations) and so we are better able
to deal with the different groups
06/14/2020 52
UENR
The need for rural sociology in extension
education cont’d
4. Helps us to identify local leaders and the influential people
in the community who could be effectively used in spreading
new technology
5. In settlement programs, a knowledge of rural sociology can
help us in successful settlement of people.
6. It give general education and general understanding of
people in different society in the world and it is important
because majority of people live in rural areas

06/14/2020 53
UENR
Role of extension education
To help the clientele to improve their quality of life through increased levels
of agricultural productivity and subsequently earn higher income and attain a
higher standard of living
It offers programmes and services that are designed to help people to help
themselves by showing them how to deal with their agricultural and
community problems, that is self help and leadership.
It provides a dynamic link between researchers (source of innovations) and
farmers (target group).
The focus of extension work is not only on agriculture but also on natural
resources management, home economics and community development
through agricultural development
06/14/2020 54
UENR
Role of extension education cont’d
Extension education contributes to food security that is it helps to increase food production
to the extent that apart from what is consumed or exported or processed, there shall still be
a margin in for storage to meet hard times
Employment: extension education contributes to increasing employment through the
development of agro-based industries that depend on increased production, example
increase in production of teak has made possible through extension education of farmers
and communities
Better use of available resources. Currently there is underutilization of inputs needed for
increasing agricultural production, example machining, pesticides, fertilizers, improved
seeds, etc.
Illiteracy: Educating the people to read and write would contribute in many ways towards
economic development. Extension education research has shown that those who are higher
adopters of improved farm practices and technologies are those who are educated.
06/14/2020 55
UENR
Role of extension education cont’d
Population control: Controlling the population and its growth has
numerous economic advantages; this can be done through effective
extension education.
Conservation of renewable natural resources: There is the need to
show concern of activities that degrades the environment, example,
indiscriminate tree felling, bush burning, poaching of wildlife, use of
unprescribed nets to fish, fishing using toxic substances, etc. These
programmes would succeed if extension education on these topics are
intensified in the extent that people’s attitude towards nature would
change but care would be taken of the environment.

06/14/2020 56
UENR
Principles of Extension
• All forms of extension should contribute to improving the lives of the

beneficiaries but there are some basic principles that must be upheld namely;
• Extension works with people and not for people
• Extension workers are first accountable to their employers and are expected
to follow official policies and guidelines
• On the other hand, extension workers are the servants of the rural people and
have the responsibility to fulfill the needs of the people
• The adoption of the technology being extended as well as the peoples’
participation in the extension program are often used as the measure of the
effectiveness of the extension service

06/14/2020 57
UENR
The Role of Extension Agents
• The major objective of any extension work no matter its

orientation (be it forestry, agric, fisheries etc.) is to assist
people in the adoption of new technology. This new
technology should contribute to improving the living
standard of the recipient.
• In bringing about this improvement, the extension agent
plays several roles.

06/14/2020 58
UENR
The Role of Extension Agents Cont’d
• Change agent
• He creates awareness of the existence of the new or better technology
and induces his clients to accept and adopt
• The agent brings about change in the clients attitude, knowledge and
skills about the new technology
• As a change agent, his effectiveness is measured in terms of
percentage awareness and adoption

06/14/2020 59
UENR
• Educator/Teacher
• Every extension worker plays the role of a teacher
• He leads his clients from the known to unknown
• He teaches in the non-formal way and his methods are often more of a
group discussion and demonstration
• Generally his acceptance is dependent on the degree of confidence or
trust that the client have in him

06/14/2020 60
UENR
• Advisor
• He gives advice as well as solutions to problems throughout the
adoption process
• He advises on what methods to use, how to use it, alternatives available
and the effects of their use
• His clients may call on him to give advice on other areas not specifically
related to his profession. E.g. Family Planning, Credits from banks,
Health issues etc.
• Generally the more knowledgeable he is in other areas outside his field
the greater the confidence the farmers would have in him
06/14/2020 61
UENR
• Middleman/Contact person
• He operates between his organization/research institution and
the farmers
• He provides information to farmers from research people and
vice versa

06/14/2020 62
UENR
• Demonstrator/Technician
• He must be able to set up demonstration plots and small trial
plot where and when needed
• He must be able to explain instructions on and the use of
machinery, chemicals etc.
• He must have tried most of the things he teaches and where
possible, he must give his own practical examples

06/14/2020 63
UENR
• Leader/Manager/Supervisor
• As a manager, he plans, organize, directs and controls his work
(extension program)
• He supervises his junior staff and more importantly that of his farmers
as they go through the adoption process
• Arbiter: - be able to solve pressing issues during the adoption process
• Economist of rural people:- should be able to assist the people how to
manage their living so as to obtain maximum benefits from their new
technology so as to improve their standard of living

06/14/2020 64
UENR
Qualities of a good extension worker
As a leader or instructor a good extension worker or agent needs to

have the following qualities
Physical fitness: Extension work involves a lot of physical or

energetic duties such as walking long distances to visit or meet clients
on appointed dates and time, holding of workshops, for a,
demonstrations, etc. It is therefore important that the agent be
physically fit, that is, very healthy in order to undertake these tasks.

06/14/2020 65
UENR
Cont’d
Ability to communicate with farmers. Effective extension thrives on
communication between the client and the extension agent. The agent
must be able to communicate to the learners. This can be achieved
when the agent is able to speak the local language. He must speak so
that all can hear him directly.
Where it is not possible, the agent would have to work through an
interpreter. Research has however shown that, the inability of
extension agent to speak local language is often a barrier to the rate of
adoption of technology. Moreover, rural people tend to regard such
agents as strangers and may not trust or in the extension agent.

06/14/2020 66
UENR
Cont’d
Ability to get on with people: Extension worker must be people-
oriented and it is a type of social work. It is therefore important that the
agent be prepared to be friendly and courteous, prompt to those the
deals with
Enthusiasm for the job: Effective extension work demand a strong
personal commitment. The extension worker must set a good example of
leadership in teaching. He must be enthusiastic and interested in the
subject. It is this enthusiasm which give him that desire to see change
occuring in the lifestyle of the people through the adoption of the
technologies they have been taught. Enthusiasm also help people to
work even beyond their normal working period.
06/14/2020 67
UENR
Cont’d
Common sense and Initiative: Common sense is practical and it
gained by experience in life, that is, through solving various problems
and also taking decisions. Initiative is the capacity to see what needs to
be done and the ability to do it on your own.
These 2 qualities are essentials because extension agent has to work

on his own without supervision most of the time. He must be capable
of planning, that is, having a good teaching plan and executing his
programmes to achieve the desired objective.

06/14/2020 68
UENR
Cont’d
Knowledge of subject area: The agent must have mastered his subject
area both the basic theory and the practice of it. He must have clear
objective and organization.
Empathy: This is the ability to see problems through the eyes of the
farmer, that is, the agent tries to understand the behavior or response
of the farmer taking his background into consideration. Empathy helps
to reduce the cultural, social, class, educational, economic barriers that
may exist in between the extension agent and the client.

06/14/2020 69
UENR
Cont’d
• Credibility: Credibility shows the level of confidence the client have in the extension
agent. The extent to which the client behave or trust the extension agent. There are a
number of factors that influence credibility some of them include:
•
1. The extent to which your promises are fulfilled
2. The extent to which you keep your schedule, visits and appointments
3. The extent to which you present the truth about practices you teach
4. How practical you are in teaching
5. How trustworthy you are
6. Moral: people link official work with private life
7. Drunkenness should be avoided
06/14/2020 70
UENR
Cont’d
• Humility: As a result of the gap that exists between the extension
worker and the client (farmers) in terms and education, expertise or
the knowledge, social class, economic status etc, there is sometimes
the tendency further extension worker to see himself as being socially
higher than the client. This could be a barrier to effective
communication between them which could adversely affect the
success and of the extension work. There is therefor the need for the
extension agent to exhibit humility. He must also realize that he as an
individual doesn’t know everything and must not always be right.

06/14/2020 71
UENR
Cont’d
• Professional commitment: A good extension agent must have a strong
commitment to succeed in bringing about change in the lives of the
people he serves. Extension work should be made to have professional
look and these calls for keeping abreast with new technologies. There
is the need for the patience and persistence because rural people do not
change overnight. Since extension work can sometimes be
discouraging, there is also the need for self-motivation

06/14/2020 72
UENR
References
• Baidoo, A. & Derkyi, M. (2018).Gender and Land Tenure Security: the contribution of Non-Timber
Forest Products in Off-Reserve farms to Rural Livelihoods in Goaso, Ghana. Available
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322317587
• Baidoo, A. (2018) Non-timber forest products (NTFPs): Snapshot of emerging definitions. Available
at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323918550
• Baidoo, A. et al. (2017) The role of collaborative forest management practices in sustainable forest
management in Juaso, Ghana. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322069367
• Brown, D. L., & Wardwell, J. M. (Eds.). (2013). New directions in urban–rural migration: the
population turnaround in rural America. Elsevier.
• Lowe, P. (2010). Enacting rural sociology: or what are the creativity claims of the engaged
sciences?. Sociologia Ruralis, 50(4), 311-330.
• Sachs, C. E. (2018). Gendered fields: Rural women, agriculture, and environment. Routledge.
• Sorokin, P. A. (Ed.). (2007). A systematic source book in rural sociology (Vol. 1). McCormick Press.
• Tremblay, K. R., & Dunlap, R. E. (1978). Rural-urban residence and concern with environmental
quality: A replication and extension.
06/14/2020
Baidoo, A.Rural
& Abugre,sociology,
S. Rural Sociology43(3), 474.DNRM-
and Extension,
73
UENR

School of Natural Resources: Rural Sociology and Extension

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

School of Natural Resources: Rural Sociology and Extension

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

1. General environment and orientation to nature:

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• These characteristics of rural people and the rural area influences

• This mechanism of social control directly influences the individual to

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• Formal social control involves the use of specific agencies set up to

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• The status of an individual indicates also the role he is expected to play. In

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• In many cases without their support and co-operation, it is very

• There are three methods:

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• Socialization is the term used to describe the ways in which people or

• Through socialization, the identity of that society is maintained as well

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• The agents of socialization are the individuals or social groups or a

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• Some of these people become deviants, e.g. Criminals, thieves, drug

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• E.g. a child was discovered by police in South Africa in

• In everyday’s speech, the word culture refers to things like music,

• In simple terms, culture consists of all the ways in which a society’s

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

1. Culture is learned, transmitted, dynamic and shared

• These are shared ideas as to what people consider to be important or

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• Acculturation – this occurs when people of one culture incorporates

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

1. The family institution – for procreation, primary

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Nuclear – consisting of husband, wife and children (conjugal)

Extended: founded blood ties (consanguine) of a large number of people

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• Migration is the physical movement of people from one area to

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• According to R. N. Ferquiher, Extension is a service or a system which

• Agricultural extension as a disciple involves the training of people in the

1. It helps to understand how rural people function in their

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• All forms of extension should contribute to improving the lives of the

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

• The major objective of any extension work no matter its

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

As a leader or instructor a good extension worker or agent needs to

Physical fitness: Extension work involves a lot of physical or

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

Baidoo, A. & Abugre, S. Rural Sociology and Extension, DNRM-

These 2 qualities are essentials because extension agent has to work