DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Course on

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS
II year R16
II Semester Regulation

Presented by:
G Sandeep V Padmakar
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ECE
RCE
Contents
 Frequency Domain Description
 Bandwidth of an AM wave
 Important formulae related to modulation index
 Power relations in AM wave
 Transmission Efficiency
 Numerical problems
 Generation of AM signals
 Detection of AM signals
 Numericals for practice
Frequency Domain Description
 We know that the AM signal is given by
S(t) = Ac (1 + μ Cos 2π*fm*t ) Cos(2π*fc*t)
= Ac Cos(2π*fc*t) + Acμ Cos (2π*fm*t) Cos(2π*fc*t)
= Ac Cos(2π*fc*t) + Acμ [2 Cos (2π*fm*t) Cos(2π*fc*t)]
2

= Ac Cos(2π*fc*t) + Acμ Cos 2π(fc+fm)t + Acμ Cos 2π(fc-fm)t

2 2

Carrier USB LSB

 The above equation represents an un modulated carrier

and two additional terms represents two sidebands
Bandwidth of an AM wave
 Bandwidth can be measured by subtracting lowest
frequency of the signal from the highest frequency of
the signal.
 For AM wave it is given as

BW = fUSB – fLSB
= (fc+fm) – (fc-fm)
= 2fm
 The Bandwidth required for the AM signal is twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.
 Cont…
 We have
S(t) = Ac Cos(2π*fc*t) + Acμ Cos 2π(fc+fm)t + Acμ Cos 2π(fc-fm)t
2 2
Apply Fourier Transform to the above equation, we get
S(f) = Ac [δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] + Acμ [δ(f-(fc+fm)+ δ(f-(fc+fm))]
2 4
+ Acμ [δ(f-(fc-fm)+ δ(f-(fc-fm))]
4
Thus the spectrum of an AM wave for the case of sinusoidal modulation
consists of delta function at ±fc, fc ±fm and -fc ±fm
 c(t) = Am
m(t) = Am Cos(2π*fm*t)
Cos(2π*fc*t)
M(f) C(f)

-fm 0 fm -fc 0 fc

Modulated signal
S(f)
S(f)
┊
┊
Ac ┊ Ac
2 ┊ 2
Acμ
Acμ ┊ Acμ Acμ
4 ┊ 4
4 4
┊
┊
┊
-fc-
-fc -fc+fm 0 fc-fm fc fc+fm
fm

BW = 2fm
 Am

Am Amax

Amin

In the above figure Amax and Amin represent the maximum and minimum
values of the envelope of the modulated wave
Cont…
 From the above figure we have,
 Am+Am = Amax – Amin
2Am = Amax – Amin ⇒ Am = Amax + Amin
2
 Ac = Am + Amin = Amin + Amax – Amin
2

⇒
Ac = Amax + Amin
2

and w.k.t μ = Am/Ac ⇒ μ = Amax + Amin

Amax - Amin
Power Relations in AM
 AM wave Consists of  carrier and two sidebands
 The amplitudes of the two sidebands depends on the
value of μ ⇒ total power in an AM wave is the function
of modulation index μ.
 The total power in an AM wave is given by
Pt = [carrier power] + [power in USB] + [power in LSB]
S(t)

⇒ Pt = Pc + PUSB + PLSB
Cont…
 The average carrier power is
⇒ Amplitude = Ac
Vrms = Ac/√2
carrier power = (Ac/√2)² [∵ Pac = Vrms² ]
R 2R

⇒ Pc = Ac²
2R

 The average power in USB and LSB is given by

⇒ PUSB = Ac²μ² = PLSB
8R
Cont…
 The avg. total power is
Pt = Ac² + Ac²μ² + Ac²μ²
2R 8R 8R

Pt = Ac² {1 + μ² }
2R 2

⇒ Pt = Pc {1 + μ² }
2

% Carrier power = 2 × 100%

2 + μ²
Transmission Efficiency
 It is the ratio of the transmitted power which contains
the information to the total sideband power.
PS μ²
η = PtB =
2 + μ²

μ²
⇒ transmission efficiency = η% = × 100%
2 + μ²
 Numerical Problems
A modulating signal m(t) = 10 Cos(2π*10³*t) is amplitude
modulated with a carrier c(t) = 50 Cos(2π*10⁵*t). Find the
modulation index, carrier power and the power required to
transmit the AM wave.
Sol: Given m(t) = 10 Cos(2π*10³*t) ⇒ Am = 10 v, fm = 10³ Hz
and c(t) = 50 Cos(2π*10⁵*t) ⇒ Ac = 50 v, fc = 100 KHz
i) Modulation index μ = Am/Ac = 10/50 = 0.2
ii) Carrier power = Ac²/2R = 50²/2 = 1250 W (Consider R =1Ω)
iii) Total power = Ac²/ 2R {1 + μ²/2 }
= 1250 * {1+ 0.2²/2}
= 1275 W
Cont…
 The equation for Amplitude Modulated wave is given as
S(t) = 20 (1 + 0.8 Cos 2π*10³ *t ) Cos(4π*10⁵ *t). Find the
carrier power, the total sideband power and the bandwidth
of AM wave.
Sol: on comparing the given equation with the standard
equation S(t) = Ac (1 + μ Cos 2π*fm*t ) Cos(2π*fc*t)
we have Ac = 20 V, μ = 0.8, fm = 10³ Hz and fc = 200 KHz
i) Carrier power Pc = Ac²/2R = 20²/2 = 200 W (Consider R =1Ω)
ii) Total sideband power PSB = Pcμ²/2
= 200 * 0.8²/2 = 64W
iii) Bandwidth = 2fm = 2 * 10³ Hz = 2 KHz
Generation of AM signals
 The circuits which are used for the generation of Amplitude
modulated waves are known as AM modulators.
 Use two methods  Square law modulator

 Switching modulator
Diode Characteristics:

The output of a Non Linear Device is given by

linear
Vo = a₁ Vi + a₂Vi² + a₃Vi³ + a₄Vi⁴ +
……..

Square law If we consider a square law device then

Vo = a₁ Vi + a₂Vi²
Vi

 At low voltages: Square law characteristics

 At high voltages: Linear characteristics
1.Square Law Device

 The square law device consists of 3 elements

Summer: adds carrier and message signals
Non linear device: to implement square law modulator
Band pass filter: extracts desired term from modulator products
 Semiconductor diodes and transistors are the most common non
linear devices used for implementing square law modulator.
 The BPF is implemented using a single or double tuned filter.
Cont…
 Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t)
and Ac Cos(2πfct) respectively.
 These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer
(adder) block.
 Mathematically, we can write it as

V₁t=m(t)+Ac Cos(2πfct)
 This signal V₁t is applied as an input to a nonlinear device
like diode. The characteristics of the diode are closely
related to square law.
V₂(t)=k₁V₁(t)+k₂V₁²(t)
where k₁ and k₂ are constants
Cont…
 Now substitute the value of V₁t in the above equation, we get
V₂(t)=k₁[m(t)+Ac Cos(2πfct)]+ k₂[m(t)+Ac Cos(2πfct)]²
⇒V₂(t)= k₁m(t)+ k₁Ac Cos(2πfct) + k₂m²(t) + k₂Ac²Cos(2πfct)²
+ 2 k₂Ac Cos(2πfct)
⇒V₂(t )= k₁m(t)+ k₂m²(t) + k₂Ac²Cos(2πfct)²
+ k₁Ac [1+(2k₂/ k₁) m(t)] Cos(2πfct)
 When passing the above equation through a BPF, we get the output
of a square law modulator as
S(t) = k₁Ac [1+(2k₂/ k₁) m(t)] Cos(2πfct)
2.Switching Modulator

 Similar to square law modulator

 Only difference is diode is operated as a linear switch

now we can write

V₁t=m(t)+c(t)
V₁t=m(t)+Ac Cos(2πfct)
Cont…
 Diode’s ON and OFF action is controlled by the carrier
signal.
⇒ diode is FB when c(t) > 0
diode is RB when c(t) < 0
 Therefore the output of the diode is

V₁t If c(t) > 0

V₂(t )=
0 If c(t) < 0
 We can approximate this
V₂(t ) = V₁t x(t)
where x(t) is a periodic pulse train with period T = 1/fc
Cont…
 The unwanted terms of the equation are removed by
passing the signal through a band pass filter.
 Therefore, the output of a switching modulator is given
by
S(t) = Ac/2 [1 + (4/ πAc) m(t)] Cos(2πfct)
 The above equation resembles the standard form of an
AM wave.
 By comparing the output of the switching modulator
with the standard equation of AM wave, we will get the
scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude sensitivity as 4/ πAc.
Detection of AM waves

A demodulator circuit accepts a modulated signal and

recovers the original modulating information.
 These are called detectors or demodulators.
 Two widely used amplitude detectors

 Square law demodulator

 Envelope detector
1.Square Law Demodulator

 Used to demodulate low level AM

 Contains square law device and a Low pass filter
 The input to the square law device is the standard AM
wave given by
V₁t = Ac (1 + Ka m(t)) Cos(2π*fc*t)
 The input output relation of a square law device is given by

V₂(t)=k₁V₁(t)+k₂V₁²(t)
Cont…
 Substituting V₁(t)in V₂(t), we get
V₂(t) = k₁[Ac (1 + Ka m(t)) Cos(2π*fc*t)]+
k₂[Ac (1 + Ka m(t)) Cos(2π*fc*t)]²
⇒V₂(t)= k₁Ac Cos(2πfct) + k₁AcKam(t)Cos(2πfct) +
k₂Ac²[1+Cos(4πfct)/2] (1+ka²m(t)²+2Kam(t))
V₂(t) = k₁Ac Cos(2πfct) + k₁AcKam(t)Cos(2πfct) +
k₂Ac²/2+
[k₂Ac²/2* Cos(4πfct)] + [k₂Ac²ka²m(t)²/2Cos(4πfct)]+
[k₂Ac²ka²m(t)²/2]+[k₂Ac²kam(t)]+[k₂Ac²kam(t)Cos(4πfct)

 k₂Ac²kam(t) is the scaled version of the message signal.

 Use a LPF to extract the message signal.
2.Envelope detector
Cont…
 Simple and highly effective device.
 The output of the detector follows the envelope of the
modulated signal.
 Consists of a diode and low pass filter, together known
as diode detector.
Operation:
 In the +ve cycle  diode conducts and current flows
 In the –ve cycle  diode is reverse biased and no
current flows.
RC filter response:
 during the +ve half cycle  diode is forward biased and
the capacitor C charge up to the peak value of the input
signal.
 When the i/p signal falls below this value, the diode
becomes reverse biased and the capacitor discharges
slowly through the load resistor R.
Numericals for practice
 For an AM, Amplitude of modulating signal is 0.5V and
carrier amplitude is 1V. Find modulation index.
 When the modulation percentage is 75%, an AM
transmitter radiates 10 KW power. How much of this is
carrier power.
 A 500W, 100 KHz carrier is modulated to a depth of 60%
by modulating frequency of 1 KHz. Calculate the total
power transmitted. What are the sideband components of
AM wave.
 A carrier of 750W, 1 MHz is amplitude modulated by
sinusoidal signal of 2 KHz to a depth of 50%. Calculate
bandwidth, Power in sideband and total power transmitted.
 Post your Questions at
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