Motion & Control

• Concept of seakeeping, ship motions and their effects

• Waves: Regular & Irregular waves & concept of energy

spectrum – Standard spectra, Beaufort Scale & Seastate
code

• Ship motions in regular waves - expressions for the natural

periods of heave, pitch and roll - Forced heave, pitch and roll
motions
• Ship motions in irregular waves - concepts of encounter and
motion spectrum.
• Derived responses - deck wetness and slamming
• Motion stabilizers

• Seakeeping performance and criteria

• Ship design features that affect seakeeping

Introduction
• Deals with two parts
• Seakeeping
• Manoeuvring
• Seakeeping: How the ship behaves in sea (or) behavior of ship in
waves.
• Seaworthiness: Ship is seaworthy, if it completes its voyage in
extreme conditions.
• Seakindliness: Measure of how well the ship behaves in sea in more
likely conditions.
• Fundamental effect of the waves on the ship is to cause it to undergo
various motions or oscillations.
• The motions that a ship is forced to execute due to the waves are
conveniently divided into three linear oscillations along, and three
angular oscillations about, axes oriented along the length (x-axis),
breadth (y-axis) and depth (z-axis)
Oscillation Linear Angular
Axis
 
x Surge Roll
 
y Sway Pitch
 
z Heave Yaw
Effects of Ship Motions
Excessive ship motions effect
• the comfort of the crew and passengers – sea sickness
• the operation of various ship systems
• Speed loss – involuntary (due to added resistance) & voluntary (for
safety of the ship)
• Additional stresses on ship structure – wave bending moment & shear
stress, slamming, torsion (racking)
• Deck wetness
• Shifting of cargo
• Steering – as it cannot follow prescribed path
• Effect on stability
Waves:
• By the action of wind and other atmospheric effects or by the motion
of bodies such as ships, surface waves are created.

• The speed of the wave, celerity C = L/T (T – Wave period)

• Waves in nature, rarely appear to look exactly the same from wave to
wave.
•Regular
  Wave:
• A sine(cosine) function defines a regular wave.
• We need amplitude, wave length, wave period to specify a regular
wave.
; k = 2π/λ
Equations for surface waves:

• We will see how waves may occur on the surface of water in nature.
• With the help of Linear/Airy wave theory, will try to give a description
of gravity waves.
• The theory assumes – fluid layer has uniform mean depth, flow is
inviscid, incompressible and irrotational.
• The waves on the surface set the rest of the water into motion, and at
each point the fluid has velocity V(u,v,w), satisfying the continuity
equation,
• Y-component of velocity, v is assumed to be zero (no variation across
the channel).
• As the fluid is assumed as irrotational, the velocity components may
be expressed in terms of velocity potential φ.
• If we introduce the velocity potential in continuity equation, we
obtain

(Laplace equation)
• When one solves the Laplace equation with suitable boundary
conditions, φ can be determined.
• Once the velocity potential is known, the pressure exerted by the
water can be determined using Navier-Stokes equations.
• 

• For deep water (h  infinity), hence

• Velocities,

•  gives a circular motion for wave particles.

• Surface elevation,
Where, ; ;
;
•  Maximum wave slope,
• Pressure at a point ‘Z’ below the surface,
• Wave energy per unit area,
• At the surface (z=0),
• At time t=o,
• Stokes second order waves -
• If
(very imp aspect of linear wave theory)
Standing Waves:

•  It is interference of two regular waves of same amplitude & period,

but travelling in opposite direction.
• Say, & ; then
• There will be no net propagation of energy.
• The wave remains at constant position.
 Ocean waves
• Waves generated due to – friction between air & water surface & local pressure
variation.
• Irregular in nature – Irregular waves.
• Resultant of large no.of regular waves of different frequencies, wave amplitude,
phases & directions of propagation.
• It allows one to predict very complex irregular behavior in terms of much simpler
theory of regular waves.
• When wave enter shallow water – they become steeper – then the wave breaks.
• Longer waves travel faster than shorter waves.
Fully developed sea – Energy Density Spectrum

•  The instantaneous wave elevation has a gaussian distribution and zero

mean.
• The amplitudes can be obtained by a Fourier analysis of the signal.
• The variance of this signal is equal to average value of the squares of
the surface elevation,
• This is a positive quantity & measures the severity of the sea.
•  Waves of different wave length moving in same direction results a
Long crested sea.
• We know, energy per unit area of component wave,
• Energy per unit area for ‘n’ no.of waves,
• If ninfinity, the energy of waves for frequencies between ω & ω+dω
are written as,

• Sζ(ω) is spectral density at frequency ω.

Wave Spectrum
• It describes the energy of the waves
distributed with frequency.
• Area under the curve gives the total
energy of the wave system.
• Energy is measured by measuring the
wave heights wrt time i.e., through wave
records.
• Wave frequencies for the respective time
were analyzed (using Fourier series),
such that wave heights(amplitudes) for
different frequencies are obtained.
• Sζ(ω) plotted against frequency (ω) gives
“Wave spectrum”.
Also known as:
• Point Spectrum
• Energy Spectrum
• Variance Spectrum
Moment of the spectrum
•  The nth moment of the wave spectrum (wrt vertical axis at ω = 0) is
given as,

• This means m0ζ is the area under the spectral curve, m1ζ is the first
order moment (static moment) of this area and m2ζ is the second
order moment (moment of inertia) of this area.

• m0ζ is an indication of the variance squared, m0ζ = σ2, of the water

surface elevation.
 • If one looks at a record of the surface elevation ζ of the irregular
waves in the sea at a point x as a function of time t, one can
determine the following parameters :
a  apparent wave amplitude

h  apparent wave height

Tz  apparent zero up-crossing period

Tc  apparent period based on adjacent crests

z  apparent wave length based on adjacent zero up-crossings

c  apparent wave length based on adjacent crests.

• The average values of these apparent parameters are related to the
moments of the wave spectrum, e.g. the average period between
zero up-crossings or the average period based on adjacent crests have
values :
m0 m2
Tz  2 
 Tc  2 
m2 m4

m0
The average wave length based on zero up-crossings is : z  2  g
m4


The average frequency of the waves is :
  S    d m1 2  2  m0
 0
 T1  

m0  m1
 S    d
0
•  The frequency at which the waves have the highest energy, i.e. the
value of ω at which has the greatest value, is the “modal frequency”
ωm and the corresponding period is the “modal period”
We know, Tm  2  m
• is a measure of the distribution of energy in the sea as a function of
the frequency ω, known as the wave spectral density.
• A curve of as a function of ω is the wave spectrum.
• The total energy per unit area due to all the waves in the sea is given
by :
 
1
E   g   a2   d   g  S    d    g    area under the -ω curve
0
2 0
Standard Wave Spectra

• There are some wave spectra that are widely used, e.g. :
• Pierson-Mosowitz Spectrum
• JONSWAP Spectrum
• Bretschneider Spectrum
• ITTC Spectrum
Pierson-Mosowitz Spectrum
g 2   g 4 
S     5 exp      
   Vw  
 

S     spectrum ordinate in cm2 sec

ω=frequency
    in   radians   per   sec
−3
  =8.10 ∗ 10
𝛼
𝛽=0.74
 
𝑔=acceleration
   of   gravity   in   cm   per   sec2
𝑉  𝑤 =wind  speed   in   cm   per  sec
 JONSWAP Spectrum
• This is based on data collected by the Joint North Sea Wave
Observation Project and is given by :
2   
4
g 5 
S     5 exp      
r
  4   p  



   2 

1
 U10
 2 3
r  exp   
p
 2  p 
2 2   0.076  
   F g 

𝛾  =3.3   0.07   p

 0.09   p

F is the “fetch”, i.e. the distance over which the wind blows with a constant velocity, and U 10 is the
wind velocity 10 m above the surface of water
Bretschneider Spectrum

T1 the period corresponding to the average wave frequency

ITTC Spectrum
• The ITTC spectral formulation for fully developed seas, derives from Bretschneider,
and are given by the following equation:
A  B 
S     5 exp   4 
   

This is a form of the Bretschneider spectrum with :

h1
  691.18 A  173 3
𝐵= 4
𝑇1 T14
If only hs is known, one may use following values:
3.11
A  8.10  10 3
g 2 B 2 T1 the period corresponding to the average
h1 wave frequency
3
Directional Spectra
• If one is to consider the sea to have irregular waves moving in various
directions distributed at random about a dominant direction of
propagation, it is necessary to use a “directional spectrum” Sζ(ω,μ),
where μ is the angle that a particular wave component makes with
the reference/dominant wave direction.
S   ,    S    M   
The spreading function M(μ) is usually taken as

1 n   
M    cos   if   s     s
s  s 2 
0 otherwise
𝜇=angle
    between   the   direction  of   propagation   of  a   wave   component   and   the   dominant   wave   direction

𝜇  𝑠 =angular   range   of   components   on  either   side   of   the   dominant   wave   direction

  At present, it is usual to take n = 2 &

2
M     cos 2 

Description of Sea Conditions
• There are two widely used methods to describe the condition of the sea – the
Beaufort Scale and the Sea State Code.
Scale
Scale Description
Description Wind Speed,
Wind Speed, knots
knots
  
00 Calm
Calm 11
11 Light air
Light air 11 –– 33
22 Light breeze
Light breeze 44 –– 66
33 Gentle breeze
Gentle breeze 77 –– 10
10
44 Moderate breeze
Moderate breeze 11 –– 16
11 16
55 Fresh breeze
Fresh breeze 17 –– 21
17 21
66 Strong breeze
Strong breeze 22 –– 27
22 27
77 Near gale
Near gale 28 –– 33
28 33
88 Gale
Gale 34 –– 40
34 40
99 Strong gale
Strong gale 41 –– 47
41 47
10
10 Storm
Storm 48 –– 55
48 55
11
11 Violent storm
Violent storm 56 –– 63
56 63
12
12 Hurricane
Hurricane 64 and
64 and over
over
 Sea State Description of the Sea Significant Wave
Height, m
0 Calm (glassy) 0
1 Calm (rippled) 0 – 0.10
2 Smooth (wavelets) 0.10 – 0.50
3 Slight 0.50 – 1.25
4 Moderate 1.25 – 2.50
5 Rough 2.50 – 4.00
6 Very rough 4.00 – 6.00
7 High 6.00 – 9.00
8 Very high 9.00 – 14.00
9 Phenomenal Over 14.00
Problems
1) Given the Wave length = 120 cm and height of wave =6 cm,
Determine:
• Celerity
• Time period
• Wave amplitude
• Wave energy per unit area
• Max.wave slope
2) The wave spectrum is given as,
Omega (ω) Sζ(ω)
0.5 0 Determine the significant
1 3.293 wave height.
1.5 0.702
2 0.181
2.5 0
Prob1:  
Given  
Wave Length, λ= 120
Height, h= 6
   
Wave Speed(celerity), C= 13.69
((g*λ)/(2∏))^0.5  
   
Time Period, T= 8.76
(λ/C)  
   
Wave Amplitude, ζ= 3
   
   
Wave Energy per unit area= 45.25
(0.5*ζ2a*ρ*g)  
   
Max. Wave Slope, αmax= 0.16
(π*h)/λ  
prob 2      
       

omega Sζ Factor Product

0.5 0 1 0

1 3.293 4 13.172

1.5 0.702 2 1.404

2 0.181 4 0.724
2.5 0 1 0
       
    sum= 15.3
       
    m0= 2.55
       
significant wave
    ht=  6.38
General Theory of Oscillations

Equation of Motion

The equation of motion for a system that is undergoing linear or angular oscillation may be
written as :
a x  b x  c x  P  Pa cos et
The terms in this equation represent the following :

ax  inertia force or moment

x is the displacement from the mean position
bx  damping force or moment
cx  restoring force or moment d2x dx
x  2 x 
P = exciting force or moment dt dt
Pa = amplitude of the exciting force or moment
ωe = frequency of the exciting force or moment
t = time
The following cases arise :

Free undamped oscillation, b = 0 and P = 0

Free damped oscillation, b ≠ 0 and P = 0

Forced undamped oscillation, b = 0 and P ≠ 0

Forced damped oscillation, b ≠ 0 and P ≠ 0

Free Undamped Oscillation

This is also known as “natural oscillation” since it is not forced by an external force or moment. The
equation for free undamped oscillation is :
a x  cx  0
The solution of this differential equation is :

x  xa ein t  xa sin  nt   

xa is the amplitude of the oscillation and ε the phase angle, which depend upon the “initial conditions”.
The “circular frequency” in radians per unit time with which the system oscillates after being disturbed
momentarily from its position of equilibrium is the “natural (circular) frequency” given by :

c
n 
a
The natural frequency in oscillations per unit time and the
natural time period of the oscillation are given by : n 2
fn  Tn 
2 n
Free Damped Oscillation

  bx  cx  0
The equation for free damped oscillation is : ax
2
b  b  c
This has the solution : x  xa e pt  By , , in above expression, p    
2a  2a  a

b
Decay constant,  
2a

 Case (i): If , P is real and there will be no oscillations – the system is “overdamped”

 Case (ii): If , P is imaginary and there will be oscillations

2 2
P=− ν± 𝑖 √ 𝜔 − 𝜈 =− 𝜈 ±𝑖 𝜔 𝑑
 
𝑛
where ωd is damping frequency

 
 𝒳 = 𝒳 𝑎 . 𝑒− 𝜈 𝑡 . cos 𝜔 𝑑 𝑡 ❑ taking only real part
−𝜈𝑡 ± 𝑖 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
 𝒳 = 𝒳 𝑎 . 𝑒 .𝑒
 Case (iii): If , this condition is known as “critical damping”. It is boundary between oscillating
& not oscillating, , i.e. oscillating with zero frequency.

Forced Damped Oscillation

The equation for forced damped oscillation is : ax  bx  cx  Pa cos et
which has the solution :  𝑥 =𝑒
− 𝜈𝑡
𝑥 𝑎 0 cos ( 𝜔 𝑑 𝑡 +𝜀 0 ) + 𝑥 𝑎 cos( 𝜔𝑒 𝑡 +𝜀 )

- The first term represents transient oscillations which die out with the
passage of time depending upon the value of the decay constant.
- Eventually, only the forced oscillations remain, as given by the second
term which represents the steady state solution.

If a constant force or moment Pa were acting on the system, there would be a static displacement
from the position of equilibrium given by :
Pa
xstatic 
c
xa e
The magnification factor & tuning factor of the  
oscillating system is defined as : xstatic n
The non-dimensional damping factor is given by  n

It can be shown that the phase angle and the magnification factor are related to the tuning factor and
the non-dimensional damping factor as follows :

   1
2   0.5
  tan 1  n 2      2
2

 
2
 1    1 2  4   
    n  

 When the tuning factor , i.e. the exciting frequency is equal to the natural frequency, there is
“resonance” and the magnification factor has a high value.
If there were no damping, the amplitude of oscillation would become infinitely large when there was
resonance.
Motions with and without Restoring Forces or Moments
Surge, sway and yaw motions of a ship do not have restoring forces or moments, since the ship is in
neutral equilibrium with respect to linear movements along the x- and y-axes and angular movement
about the z-axis.
These motions can only be forced oscillations at the exciting frequency with an amplitude
dependent upon the amplitude of the exciting force or moment.

A ship is in stable equilibrium with respect to heel, trim and sinkage, e.g. if the heel angle of a
ship in equilibrium is momentarily changed by a small amount, a righting moment acts to restore
the position of equilibrium.
Roll and pitch are thus ship motions with restoring moments, and heave is a motion with a
restoring force.
Heave
The equation for “free” heave motion is written as :  m  az  z  bz  cz  0
m is the mass (displacement) of the ship, az is the added mass in heave, b is the damping coefficient
and c is restoring coefficient.
The restoring force is the additional buoyancy due to a parallel sinkage z, cz   g AW z

Aw is the waterplane area at the equilibrium draught. The natural undamped frequency in heave
and the corresponding time period are :

 g AW 2 m  az
z  Tz   2
m  az z  g AW

The added mass and the damping coefficient may be determined by theoretical means or
experimentally. The added mass in heave is of the same magnitude as the mass of the ship.
The equation for the forced heaving of a ship in regular waves is :

 m  az  z  bz  cz  Fa cos et

The amplitude Fa of the exciting force in regular waves of given length and height may be
determined by calculating the pressure at points on the wetted surface of the ship and integrating
the pressure over the ship length.
Pitch
' 
The equation for free undamped pitching motion may be written as : I yy   c  0

  is the “virtual mass moment of inertia” of the ship about a transverse axis through the centre of
gravity. The restoring moment in pitch is :
c   g m GM L 
  is the longitudinal metacentric height. The natural pitch frequency and time period are given by :
' 2
g m GM L 2 I yy m k yy k yy
  T   2  2  2
'
I yy  g m GM L g m GM L g GM L

  is the virtual mass radius of gyration about the transverse axis through the centre of gravity, and
typically has a value of about one-fourth the length of the ship.
 ' 
The equation for pitching in waves is : I yy   b  g m GM L   M a cos et
  is the amplitude of the pitch moment due to the waves and may be calculated from the pressure
distribution along the length of the ship for waves of a given length and height.

The solution of this equation is :   e  t  a 0 cos  d t   0    a cos e t   
where :
We
  know,
2b
 ' Decay constant
I yy

 a 0 and  0 amplitude and phase of damped natural pitch motion (transient phase)

d  2  2 damped natural pitch frequency

'
M a I yy
a  0.5 amplitude of forced pitch motion (steady state)

 2 2
  4 2e2 
2
  e


1 
2 e  phase of forced pitch motion
  tan  2 2 
   e 
Roll
The equation for free undamped rolling is : I xx   c   0
' 

  is the virtual mass moment of inertia about a longitudinal axis through the centre of gravity, and the
restoring moment is :
c   g m GM
  Where is the metacentric height. The natural roll period is given by :

'
I xx k xx
T  2   2
g m GM g GM

The virtual radius of gyration about the longitudinal axis through the centre of gravity is given
approximately by :
k xx  0.33 B to 0.45 B
where B is the breadth of the ship. A large metacentric height is said to result in a low period of
roll (a “stiff” ship) and high accelerations and resulting inertia forces during rolling.
The equation for forced rolling in regular waves is :
' 
I xx   b   g m GM   K a cos et
The amplitude of the exciting moment is related to the wave slope : K a   g   GM

 is the displacement volume, is the maximum wave slope in the direction of the breadth of the ship
and is given by :
 h

 sin
 Where, h is the wave height, the wave length and the angle between the ship centre line (x-axis) and
the direction of propagation of the waves.

The solution of the equation for forced rolling is :

  e t a 0 cos  d t   0   a cos  e t   

 2b
 ' decay constant
where : I xx
a 0 and  0 amplitude and phase of damped natural rolling (transient phase)

d  2  2 damped natural frequency

g m GM
  ' undamped natural frequency
I xx
 2
a  0.5 amplitude of forced rolling (steady state)

 2 2
  4 2e2 
2
  e


 2  
1 phase of forced rolling
  tan  2 e 2 
   e 
 
 Ship motions in Irregular waves
• Up to now the discussion of waves & wave spectra has been w.r.t a
fixed reference point.
• Due to its forward motion, the vessel experiences a modified wave
spectrum.
• The waves encountered by a moving point is significantly modified by
the Doppler shift in the component frequencies of wave system.
• Doppler shift is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave for
an observer who is moving relative to the wave source.
• Consider a ship moving at a speed V at an angle μ to waves of length λ
& speed c.
• The relative velocity of the ship w.r.t the waves is c – v.cos(μ)
 • Encounter period, Te can be written as

Te 
c  V cos 
• We know,
g 2 g
c  2
 

• Encounter period can be expressed in terms of the wave frequency as

2 g  2 2 g
Te  
g   V cos  g    2 V cos 

• The encounter frequency is therefore :

2 g    2 V cos  2 de 2  V cos 
e   2  V cos   1
Te 2 g g d g
• The area under the wave spectrum represents the energy of all the
waves in the sea, and this remains the same whether the ship is
standing at a fixed point or is moving.
• This allows the wave spectrum as encountered by the ship to be
determined from the wave spectrum at a point, since the area under
the “encounter spectrum” is equal to the area under the point
spectrum of the irregular waves in the sea.
 

 S  e  de   S    d
0 0

1 1
S  e   S      S    
d e 2  V cos 
1
d g
• The encounter spectrum is used to determine the behavior of ship in
waves by using a factor called Response Amplitude Operator (R.A.O).
• The response amplitude operator RAO for a particular “response” x,
of the ship i.e., heave or pitch to encountered waves is defined as,
2
 xa  e  
2
 Amplitude of response x 
RAOx  e     
 Amplitude of regular waves    a  e  
• The response amplitude operators for the six basic ship motions –
surge, sway, heave, roll, pitch and yaw – can be obtained from model
experiments in regular waves or by theoretical means.
• Theoretical method – Strip theory is used to determine: R.A.O’s,
added mass & damping coefficients.
• Experimental method – Geometrically similar models tested –
measure the amplitude of particular motion and determine the ratio
of motion amplitude/wave amplitude.
Motion Spectrum

• The motion spectrum for a particular motion is obtained by

multiplying the encounter spectrum by the response amplitude
operator, e.g. the pitch spectrum is obtained as :
2
  a  e  
S  e    S  e 
  a  e  
• From the motion spectrum, one can obtain information about that
particular motion in the given sea spectrum in the same way that the
wave spectrum gives information about the waves.
• For example, denoting the area under the motion spectrum curve by
m0 (zero-th moment):
Average amplitude of pitch motion,  a  1.253 m0
Significant pitch amplitude,  13  2.000 m0
Average amplitude of highest one-tenth waves,  110  2.545 m0
The greatest pitch amplitude expected on the average in N successive
observations:
N Amplitude
100 3.25
1000
1000 3.85
10000 4.45
10000