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V Two types of interference patterns are existing in
mobile communications.
They are:-

1)Co-channel Interference.
2)Adjacent Channel Interference.
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V Co-channel interference occurs in two places. They are
1)Cell Site,
2)Mobile Station.
V In real time applications, for the reduction of co-
channel interference
C / I >18 db.

 
V An Antenna is a device that can radiate and receive EM
signal.

ACTIVE
ANTENNAS
PASSIVE
V Antennas can carry RF signal & Power signal.
V Functionality of an antenna depends on two factors.
1)frequency of its design.
2)Direction of the signal.
V G
:- Glta e ta i
ave ati
Itǯs t e eas re e t f leaka e f  si al.

leaka e = 1/ atc .
OL IZ IO :-
Its efi e as t e rie tati f  si al i t e e
air .
larizati ca e e i 2 ays. ey are:
1)Hriztal larizati,
2)Gertical larizati.



 
1. orn Antenna.
2. ens Antenna.
½. Smart Antenna.
4. Polaroid Antenna.
5. Parabolic Antenna.
6. Yagi-Uda Antenna.
7. Artificial dielectric lens Antenna.
mm 

 

V Ta
a ing N 7,in it the co-
co-channel reduction factor is q 4.6

D+R D D -R

D+R D D -R

¦         

V Effective Aperture :-
Its defined as the ratio of maximum
received power to that of the power density of the incident
wave.
The ratio of effective area DzAedz to the
maximum effective area DzAe(max)dz is nown as
effectiveness ratio Dz Dz.

Capture area Effective area + loss area + Scattering area

V Antenna Bandwidth :-
Antenna Bandwidth is defined as the range of
frequencies in which the antenna performance meets a
specified standards.
Itǯs the bandwidth in which gain , front-to-
bac ratio, standing wave ratio is maintained below the
selected value.
V Front-to-bac ratio :-
The front-to-bac ratio is defined as the
ratio of power radiated in the desired direction to that of
the power radiated in opposite direction.
If FTB is higher, then the system is within
better operation.
The tuning conditions and the electrical
length of antenna has to be designed properly.
V Polarization :-
Polarization of an electromagnetic wave is
defined as the wave radiated or received by the antenna in a
particular direction.
It describes above the electrical vector
quantity E . The electric vector E and magnetc vector are
perpendicular to each other.
 The antenna is said to be either vertically or
horizontally polarized.
V Antenna input impedence :-
The antenna input impedance or self impedance
.its also nown as feed-point or driving-point impedance.
In case if the antenna is lossless , then the
terminal impedance will bee equal to thee self-impedance of
the antenna.
The input impedance of antenna is a function of
frequency.
V Types of fading :-
There are two types of fading.
a)Small scale fading :
The small scale fading are mainly characterized by rapid
amplitude fluctuations and deep fades of less wavelength
 The small scale fading is due to signal fades,caused by
multiple path and reflections with respect to mobile
movement.
b) arge scale fading :-
The large scale fading is generated by
shadowing effects which is due to changes in both the
nature of surroundings and the terrain profile
involved.
The large scale fading is log-normally spreaded
with particular standard deviation value of
approximately 10 dB in urban areas.
Î
m  
V The two basic inds of diversity are termed as
a) Microscopic Diversity :-
To avoid deep fading in the signal received under
smaller distances can be minimized by this technique.
It can prevent small signal fades in case of less
antenna separations, if two antennas are used.Smaller
signal fades rapidly.
b) Macroscopic Diversity :-
Method of diversity used to reduce large scale
signal fades is termed as macroscopic diversity. This is
highly useful at the base station receiver end.
V Important diversity techniques :-
 The important diversity techniques are discussed in the
following ways:-
1) Space diversity technique :-
V Its also called as Ǯantenna diversity schemeǯ.
V Rayleigh fading is present as there is no direct path
between transmitter and receiver.
V Space diversity technique can be used at both base
station and mobile units.
space diversity combining schemes :-
a) selective diversity :-
Branches having strongest received signal is
selected. Demodulators are used and gain is adjusted
to give mean signal to noise ratio. Finally the best
signal pocessing good signal strength is processed.
b)Feedbac Diversity technique:-
Its also nown as Ǯscanning diversityǯ.
ere Ǯnǯ signals are scanned in a proper sequence and
the signal which is above threshold value is selected.
Scanning is done .
Its easier to implement than other
methods.
c)Maximal combining ratio technique:-
All branch signals are combined
coherently with their weighting coefficients. Signal is
co-phased before addition process.
utput signal to noise ratio will be equal
to the sum of each individual signal to noise ratio.
d)Equal gain combiner technique :-
ere all diversity branches are coherently
added with a same weighting factor. It also co-phases
each diversity branch and adds up. It provide an equal
gain factor.
ne of the demerit is it degrades the value
of SNR by 0.5 dB when it combines two branches.
V Polarization Diversity :-
In polarization diversity both horizontal andd
vertical polarizations are involved. Two uncorrelated
fading signals would appear at receiver because of
different fading variations in polarizations and
reflection coefficient values.
V Time Diversity :-
Information is transmitted repeatedly at
specific time spacings that would exceed the
coherence time of mobile channel.
Time diversity technique is well suited for
spread spectrum CDMA system, in which RAKE
receiver is used for reception.
V Frequency Diversity :-
In this method ,information is transmitted
on many carrier frequencies. ere frequencies are
separated by more than that of coherence bandwidth.
Its applied in microwave fields where S
propagation is used. S lin s many carrier channels
in frequency division multiplex mode.
m   

  
V The received signals would arrive from different
incident angles due to reflection, diffraction or
scattered signals around the mobile terminal.
V By using selective directive antennas, the faded signals
can be received.
V It is suitable to apply in mobile terminal end where
limited directions of signals at base stations is lin ed.

  
V In path diversity method the signals are coherently
combined i.e., both direct and delayed signal
components are combined.
V This method is also called implicit diversity.
V The advantages:
-- no extra power required.
-- no extra antennas required
--no extra frequency spectrum required.
V This technique is effective at antennas receiver end.
V If the correlation coefficient is zero an optimum result
of diversity is received.
V If P£1, then, no diversity is obtained.
V For two branch diversity technique the correlation
coefficient should be atleast 0.7 in the cellsite such
that antenna separation requirement is met.
V Advantages of using diversity techniques:
--  : at cellsite diversity reciever the
transmitter would experience a 7 db reduction in
power level. The amount of interference is reduced
from mobile transmitter t0 cellsite reciever.
--  : for the case of no diversity the
signal i.e., below the threshold level is 10% and it
would be 1%. If diversity technique is applied.

  






The cells of same letters(A,A) ,(B,B) etc.are cochannel

cells.on the other hand the neighbouring cells of A(B,Cǥ.G)
are nown as adjacent cells.
If the interference is generated due to non cochannel cells,it
is called non-cochannel interference.
?
  
  : In cellular mobile system the voice quality is degraded
as follows.
a.multipath environment factors.
b.speed of the vehicle.(mobile unit)

?
 

The subjective test considers atleast 75% of the mobile subscribers
receive good signal quality for a given c/n ratio.


 
The objective test at baseband level is done for both voice signal and
data.the data can be tested by few factors namely bit error rate(BER),word error
rate(WER).
The BER is independent on speed but WER is dependent on vehicular speed.
Sensitivity of the reciever should be high.
Reciever carrier level should be high.
ow distortion has to be maintained.
Diversity receiver has to be used for reducing fading effects.
?
   
The signal to noise ratio and distortion ratio
is applied for measuring 2 main factors.
1.quality of communication signal at baseband level.
2.FM sensitivity at cellular mobile reciever.
The high signal level can be measured by the ratio of signal to noise using
SINAD meter as shown below.

In the upper line of the SINAD meter signal is measured and at the bottom
line noise is measured.
If the noise level is less than distortion then SINAD meter acts as
distortion meter.


 





V The ACI is the interference that generates from adjacent
cells of desired cellsite.
V The ACI has better control than the CCI if appropriate
filters are used for filtering.
V The in-band interference cannot be filtered out.
V The amount of additional pathloss is

V Where d1,d2 are 2 cochannel sources to the BTS in the

cellsite.
Ê   §

V To use better design measure to reduce interference

due to naturally adjacent channels.

V Directional antenna beams can be used.

V Spread spectrum technique can be applied.

V To have frequency separation so that interference

due to system adjacent channels can be reduced.
V
  

V when the vehicles are in motion some of the

mobile units are closer to the cellsite while some would
be distance away from cellsite.
V ence mobile units which are closer to mobile unit
possess stronger signal.
V Thus the closer units will induce interference.
V Near end far end ratio£(pathloss due to near
end)/(pathloss due to far end).
6   :
If a bandwidth separation of 5 channel bandwidth is
allowed between adjacent channels in one cell then the
near end far end interference can be suppressed.
§ 

n cellular mobile radio systems a pair of

frequencies is used for a channel.the call conversation on
one frequency is heard through own reciever.sometimes it
has major impact on call comm,but in realtime crosstal
generates more interference.
The cross tal is even doubled if cross tal occurs on FVC ,it
will be heard on RVC.
V

  
consider one mobile unit is
close to the cell and the other mobile unit is at far. if
both of them calls to their landline users then near-
end mobile unit will have stronger signal than other.

V Now the demux c t cannot produce separation more

than ½0db. The closer mobile unit will produce more
interference and the mobile at far place have less
interference.
M    

The adjacent channel interference can be

reduced by using different techniques.
They are:
1.changing antenna beamwidth.
2.decreasing the power.
½.reducing antenna height.
The methodology of reducing antenna height and power
level could compensate for adjacent channel interference
but there will be a decrease in coverage range.
Ú   :
If the setup of antenna arrangement in the cell
site is not changed and in case the power transmitted
is decreased by X db then there would be decrease in
power level at mobile unit by same X db level.
 

n cmc,if the height of antenna is reduced there

will be a reduction in the received power. The antenna
height gain is equal to the difference between the old
and new(reduced) antenna heights.ddecreasing of
height in flat terrain is easier than in hilly region.



 

V At the transmitter side a fixed tuned channel combiner
is used.
V If the channel in the system if each one of them is feed
to their own antenna then it is possible to eliminate
the necessity of a channel combiner.
V The transmitted channels has to be combined with 2
main criteria:
1) maximum signal isolation b/w the radio channels.
2)minimum insertion loss.
V The channel combiner would cause each of 16
channels to face ½db loss due to signal insertion into
channel combiner.signal isolation is 17db.
V There is intermodulation present at multiplexer which
has to be controlled.
V The intermodulation can be eliminated by using wide
radio frequency bandwidth for few channels alone.
V If large frequency spectrum is sacrificed the
intermodulation spreading can be avoided.
Ú   

proper shielding has to be made when each cable

is fed to the combiner units,else nonlinearity of the
device would induce IM products.
proper impedance matching is necessary.
Under channel combiners in cellsite components
the intermodulation(IM) products should be atleast
55db down from that of desired signals.



 

V The frequency agile combiner is an advanced combiner
with additional features.
V It can return any frequency in real time by remote
control device namely microprocessor.
V It is essentially a waveguide resonator with a tuning
bar facility.
V A motor ma es it to rotate and when motor starts the
VSWR can be measured.
V The cellsite should be flexible to change their
operating frequency.

 

V When we want to combine two groups of channel to
give one output it is used.
V It has an insertion loss of ½db.
V  

t reduces adjacent channel separation.

power limitation problems.
V At the rxing end demux can be used to receive the intended
channel groups.
V The demux is nothing but a filter ban .
V While splitting the channels at the demux output would
produce a loss of ½db.
V This is called DzSP IT SSdz.
?66
M

6he supervisory audio tone is nown as SAT tone.

It does a main fuction in ma ing the cell site to decide
whether to allow or terminate a call.
The ½ types of SAT tones are
5970 z SAT tone.
6000 z SAT tone.
60½0 z SAT tone.