LECTURE 4; RESEARCH

AND EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS

GABRIEL MBASSA
 Perspectives of Research
Designs
 Research demands rigorous,
systematic & controlled valid results
 Guided by research problem
 Research problem must be correct
diagnosis of cause of complexity
 Presented unambiguously in a
propositional way
 Problem enables identify relevant data to
collected to obtain answer.
 Define research problem explicitly
 State conceptual structure of how research
is conducted
 Appropriate research type chosen
 Correct data to collect identified
 Most suitable research and experimental
designs selected
 Good design facilitate efficiency, yields
maximum information
 Facilitates collection of relevant

evidence based on research purpose;

exploration, description, diagnosis and
experimentation
 Research design show detail of

measurements, logistics, sampling

frame, structure of data analysis & time
of study.
 Research design is scheme,
outline, plan or structural
concept directing &
systematizing research to
generate answers to problem
 The tool or arrangement of
conditions or conceptual structure
within which research is conducted
to generate answers to problem.
 Structure facilitating description of
methods
 Actual plan that determines & sets

up conditions for measurements,

collection and analysis of data
relevant to research purpose
 The overall strategy integrating
the different components of the
study coherently and logically,
effectively addressing the
research problem
 Trillions of subjects being researched
today, under varied designs.
 Research designs differ in quality of
evidence they provide for different
research questions and hypotheses
 Experimental studies the best,
especially double-blind randomized
controlled experiments.
 In the Research Proposal the
Research design, materials and
methods are described in
Methodology after the
introduction & literature review
 Prerequisite and Qualities of
a Research Design
 All types of research in all
disciplines require a research design
as a prerequisite for the
completion of the various
operations envisaged
 Research design make research
efficient, collect relevant samples and
data and yield maximum information
at min resources and time.
 Research design prepared in advance
of data collection, processing and
analysis as a plan to guide the
research.
 Research greatly affects reliability of
results
 Thus is definite foundation for
success of research
 Focuses problem and hypothesis
 Eliminates imperfections or errors and
inadequacies.
 Qualities of research designs
related to nature of problem &
purpose and objectives
 Good research designs are flexible,

appropriate, efficient & economical

 Minimize bias
 Have smallest experimental errors
 Maximizes reliability of information

collected & results obtained &

provides opportunity for different
features of problem
 An experiment is process of
investigating truth of hypothesis on
esearch problem
 E.g test efficacy of new drug.

 Experiment designed as absolute

or comparative experiment
Selection of a Research
Design
 Several types of research designs
 Each has sub-types
 Defined research problem guides selection
of research design
 Selection of research design involves
 Know research type, in turn driven by
nature of problem
 Purpose, objectives & theoretical
foundations of research.
 Research questions, hypothesis
 Elaborating existing theory? or
building new grand theory?, or
developing new procedure?
 kind of information to be collected,

the research site, duration,

samples, and hence, the research
design
 Literature search to seek for
appropriate research designs;
 Means of gathering the information;

 Select design that answers the

research questions appropriately

 Time and resources allocated for

research.
 New material being generated?;
 Research type?; quantitative, qualitative,
innovative, experimental, survey, analytical,
experimental, prospective, retrospective,
living things, living cells, non living material,
human beings, social, scientific, biomedical,
nutrition, health, small or large animals and
plants, vertebrates, invertebrates,
microorganisms, in vivo, in vitro,
microscopic, sterile, etc
 Availability of adequate samples in
research design for random or non
random selection;
 Number of factors being analysed,
monofactor or multifactor;
 Statistical methods required for
analysis.
 Validity and reliability of the
planned research

 Research design selected via simple

requirement that it is the best or
optimally gives the answer to the
problem being addressed
 Effective research designs are;
 Systematic and logical in approach,
Address the questions of the
investigation
 Lead to accurate and fair

interpretation of results
 Focus on research sites and samples

and the means by which the study is

done.
 Lead to deeper insights on subject.
 Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses
[i.e., research questions] central to the
problem selected
 Effectively describe the data necessary
for adequate test of the hypotheses and
explain how such data will be obtained
 Describe the methods of analysis to
be applied to the data in
determining whether or not the
hypotheses are true or false.
Classification of Research
Designs
 Research designs classified in several
categories based on type of research
 One of categories of classifying research
designs is on basis that research is
conducted for purposes of either
confirmation of a pre-determined
hypothesis or exploring unknowns.
 Research using pre-determined hypothesis
is known as fixed or confirmatory
research or quantitative research.

 Research for exploring unknowns is called

non-fixed or qualitative research.

 Each of these research types has its own

research design, making distinctions from
the process of collecting data by
quantitative or qualitative methods.
 Distinction between Quantitative
and qualitative research designs
and Quantitative and qualitative
research methods
 Clear distinction between quantitative
and qualitative research methods,
and quantitative and qualitative
research designs
 (i) Quantitative research methods are
used when data is collected in
numerical form
 (ii) Qualitative research methods collect
data which is not numeric in form.
 Qualitative data may be different
colours ()
 staining intensities in tissues,

animal behaviours, etc,

photographs, videos, sound
recordings
 In contrast to definitions of quantitative
and qualitative methods
 Quantitative & qualitative research
designs are also used based on the
principle that research is conducted for
purpose of
 1) either confirmation of a pre-
determined hypothesis
 Or 2) exploring unknowns
 These principles direct the
application of
 Quantitative (fixed), and

 Qualitative (non-fixed) research

designs.
 Quantitative (fixed) Research
Design
 Hypothesis driven by theory

 Data & procedures determined before

data collection
 Variables may or may not be measured

quantitatively
 Design is confirmatory research, testing

a prior hypotheses
 Results are outcome of predictions
stated before the measurements
 Hypotheses are derived from theory

or results of previous investigations.

 Quantitative research aims at
determining relationship between
an independent variable & a
dependent variable or outcome
variable & are either descriptive or
experimental
 Qualitative research design
 In qualitative or flexible research
design, there is freedom during data
collection, the variable is not
quantitatively measurable, e.g. culture,
cell staining intensity, etc., the theory
may not be available.
 mostly exploratory research, generating
post-hypotheses by examining data-set
& looking for potential relations
between variables
 Presumption about relation between
variables may be there but no
knowledge of direction or strength.
 In pure sciences qualitative research
designs actually show associations and
or causation, for example positive
cytochemical staining of pancreatic
cells of islets of Langerhans for insulin,
or histochemical staining of T and B
lymphocytes in different regions of
lymph nodes
 Common research designs

 There are many Research

Designs & sub-types
 1. Quantitative research design

 2. Qualitative research design

 3. Descriptive Research Design
 Case study descriptive research design
 Case series study design
 Observational study design
 Survey research design
 Naturalistic observations
 4. Cross Cultural Research
Design
 5. Correlational research design

 Cross-sectional research design

 Case - Control or Retrospective study

design
 Cohort or Prospective study design

 Longitudinal research design

 6. Covariance Research Design
 7. Experimental Research

Designs
 Randomized research designs
 Randomized block research designs

 Factoral research designs

 Latin square experimental design

 8. Semi-experimental Research
Designs
 Single subject experimental

research design
 Crossover experimental design

 Quasi-experimental research

design
 Identical twins study design
 9. Review Research Design
 Literature review

 Systematic review

 Meta-analysis (Meta-analytic)
 10. Pilot Study
 11. Action Research Design
 12. Historical Research Design
 13. Philosophical Research Design
 14. Sequential Research Design
 Descriptive design
 Also; observational
investigations,
 Observe without changing

 Aim; describe affairs in situ,

finding new knowledge, natural,

acquired, subsequent, impact,
others
 Purpose; describe state of
affairs as it exists
 Report findings

 Restricted to fact findings

 Answer questions of who, what,

when, where & how associated,

no certainty of why.
 Obtain information on current
status of phenomena & what exists
with respect to variables or
conditions in a situation.
 Formulates important principles of

knowledge & solutions to problems

 Involves measurements,

classification, analysis, comparison

and interpretation of data.
 Methodology; descriptive
observational experiments/surveys
to collect information;
 Interviews

 Questionnaires

 Scientific measurements of

biological samples, spp, habits,

habitats, social, economic,
people’s attitudes, opinions, etc…
 Sub-types of descriptive research
designs;
 Case studies

 Case series study design

 Naturalistic observations

 Surveys
 Case study design
 Describes a unit in detail, in

context and holistically,

 e.g. clinical course of a disease
 longitudinal study of a population

for e.g. impact etc..

 object to be studied as a whole
 Cross Cultural Research
Design

 Used to compare behaviour

patterns of different cultures
(Social)
 E.g. how cultural variations influence
performance in education
 Correlational research
design
 Also called Non experimental Research
designs; under this category are
 Case-control study
 Cohort study
 Longitudinal study
 Cross sectional study
 Correlational (+ve, -ve)
 Researcher to assess degree of
relationship between two or more
variables
 Analyzes correlation between two or
more variables
 For example;
 Compare examination performance

of university students who stay off

campus and those on campus
 Use of correlational research
designs enable mapping out
relationship between two or more
variables
 Research types in correlational
research design;
 Innovative, Survey, Analytical,
Quantitative, Qualitative, In vitro, In
vivo, Macroscopic, Microscopic, Prospective,
Retrospective, Vertical, Horizontal, Living
mater, Non living mater, Species, molecules,
proteins, genes, Social sciences, etc
Semi-experimental
Research Design
 Field experiments
 Quasi-experimental design

 Identical twins study

 Quasi experiments
 The Nonequivalent Groups

Design
 The Regression-Discontinuity

Design
 Other Quasi-Experimental

Designs
Characteristics
 In quasi-experiments use trend, not cause,
major ones are syndromes or cycles, minor
ones are normal or abnormal events
 Quasi-experiment research designs to
involve many different, but interrelated
variables, causal relationships can be
modeled to identify spurious (false),
intervening and suppressing variables
 Experimental Research
Design
 Experimental studies are also called
longitudinal, repeated-measures or
intervention studies
 An experiment is planned inquiry

to get new facts

 Test hypothesis of causation
 Subjects are randomly assigned
to;
 Experimental group that receives

treatment
 Control group which does not

receive treatment
 Two groups are initially equivalent
 Performances of the two groups

are compared
 Findings reported
 In experimental research design;
 Cause and effect relationships are

easily determined
 Requires certainty of independent

and dependent variables

 Guard against influence of

extraneous variables (control

errors).
 Requires construction of questions
that get desired information
 Identify items to be experimented

 Identify means of experimentation

 Summarize data to provide

designed descriptive and analytical

information.
 Experimental studies involve random
assignment of experimental subjects
into a group that receives the
treatment or the intervention or that
received treatments in the past
(treated group) and those that do not
or did not receive treatments or
intervention in the past (control group).
 Both groups of animals, plants,
seeds, drugs, foods etc are initially
equivalent in all properties and
conditions, and their performances
are compared in the investigation
 The cause and effect relationships
are easily determined
 The experimental design requires

ascertaining of the independent and

dependent variables, while
excluding the influence of
extraneous variables.
 Based on the information being sort
experiments may be;-
 Preliminary

 Critical, and

 Innovative
 Preliminary experiments are
Explorative
 Involve large number of

subjects/observations and
treatments to gather information
 With or without replication
 Critical experiments;
 Compare responses of variable to

different treatments
 Use adequate units to detect

differences
 Innovative experiments;
 Generate new products or

processes
 Test new products and processes

and compare them with those in

use
 Two-Group Experimental
Designs
 Probabilistic Equivalence

 Random Selection &

Assignment
 Classes of Experimental
Designs
 Time series study
 Single subject design study
 Crossover study
 True experimental design
 Double blind experiment
 Single Factorial design
 Multiple factorial design
 Randomized Block Designs
 Covariance Designs

 Hybrid Experimental Designs

 Single factor experimental design
 Single factor varies, others constant
 Treatments; different levels of same factor,
e.g. testing suitable dosage for a growth
factor, therapeutic drug, animal feed,
mitogenic factor, mutagenic factor
 Drug dosage studies in guinea pigs
Report
 Latin experimental square
design
 Used when there are two important
extraneous independent variables.
 In comparing different levels of or types
of fertilizers on crop yield
Two extraneous independent variables
affect experiment; unequal fertility of &
seed variety.
 Experimental errors
 Since biological materials vary greatly,
due to inherent variability (individual,
intrinsic) and lack of uniformity in
dispensing treatments in the
experiment, experimental designs
envisage;
 Proper results interpretation,
 Estimate error
 Control errors
  Strategies to control
experimental errors
 1. Replication in space
(location), same time
 2. Replication in experimental

units at the same time

 3. Replication in time, repeat

experiment several times

 Randomization, select samples by
random principles
 Inclusion of controls, omitting certain
factors so that only a single factor is
allowed to act on selected groups of
treatments
 Increase sample sizes
 Blocking certain natural variations, all
samples uniform in size, age, material,
time of treatment and other factors
 Refine methods and chemicals, use very
refined materials to eliminate blocking of
active ingredients by impurities
 Minimize mechanical errors, investigator
and experiment dispenser to be perfect
Review Research Design
Action Research Design
Historical Research Design
 Purpose is to collect, verify, and
synthesize evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or refute
your hypothesis
 Uses secondary sources and a variety

of primary documentary evidence, such

as, logs, diaries, official records,
 reports, archives, and non-textual
information [maps, pictures, audio and
visual recordings]
 Limitation; sources must be both
authentic and valid.
 Philosophical Research
Design
 broad approach to examining a research
problem than a methodological design
 Philosophical analysis and argumentation
intended to challenge deeply embedded,
often intractable, assumptions
underpinning an area of study
 uses the tools of argumentation derived
from philosophical traditions, concepts,
models, and theories to critically explore and
challenge
 tools of analysis in three ways:
 Ontology -- nature of reality; for example,
what is real and what is not, what is
fundamental and what is derivative?
 Epistemology -- explores the nature of
knowledge; for example, on what does
knowledge and understanding depend
upon and how can we be certain of what
we know?
 Axiology -- study of values; for example,
what values does an individual or group hold
and why? How are values related to interest,
desire, will, experience, and means-to-end?
And, what is the difference between a matter
of fact and a matter of value?
 Sequential Research Design
 carried out in a deliberate, staged approach
serially
 one stage will be completed, followed by
another, then another, and so on
 Aim; each stage build upon previous one
until enough data is gathered over an
interval of time to test your hypothesis.