AGR3502 - FOOD CROPS

CROP MANAGEMENT:
SOIL AND NUTRIENTS
There are 16 elements that are essential
for a rice plant to grow and develop
properly.
Can be grouped into macro-elements
(needed in bigger quantity) and micro-
elements (in trace or very small quantity).
 Macro-elements
Needed by plants in large amounts, often more than 0.1%
of plant’s dry weight.
carbon (C)
hydrogen (H)
oxygen (O)
nitrogen (N)
phosphorus (P)
potassium (K)
calcium (Ca)
magnesium (Mg)
sulfur (S)
 Micro-elements
Needed by plants in trace amounts.
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Copper (Cu)
Zinc (Zn)
Boron (B)
Silicon (Si)
 Nitrogen (N)

Promotes rapid plant growth and improves

grain yield and grain quality.

N is generally the most limiting nutrient as it is needed in

large amounts and is readily lost as a gas (volatilized) and
by leaching (washing out of the root zone).

Only about 30-40% on N applied is taken up by plants.

Types of nitrogenous fertilizer
urea CH4N2O,
ammonium sulphate
(NH4)2SO4 and
ammonium nitrate (NH4)(NO3)
N is the most limiting element ;
1.not supplied with sufficient amounts by soil
2.Poor field management e.g. land
preparation, water management, weed
management,
3. Wrong dosage and timing of application.
4. Use of unresponsive variety to N
application.
Two common methods are highly recommended
to reduce N losses;

1.Basal application (even distribution and mixed

with soil during planting - transplanting only)
2.Top dressing (broadcast close to crop-
transplanting and direct seeding)
 When? During final field harrowing, by broadcasting.

 Field condition?
With no standing water in the field.
Keep field saturated 5-7 days after transplanting
Keep 2-5 cm water level for 3-4 wks after
transplanting.
Rule of thumb: Apply 40–60 kg fertilizer N per
ha.

Divide total fertilizer N recommendations into 2–

4 split applications.
Apply fertilizer N
after 14 DAT or 21
DAS based on the
crop’s need for
supplemental N, as
determined by the
leaf N status.
In flooded rice/saturated anaerobic condition,
ammonia is the dominant form of available N.

Most of the N loss is through ammonia

volatilization.
Under aerobic condition, the dominant form
of available N is nitrate.

The N loss through ammonia volatilization is

negligible.
X

√ √
Most modern crop varieties, including rice are very
responsive to higher N fertilizer, e.g. up to 200 kg
N/ha, with higher yield.

However, the consequences are;

 surface water pollution - algal bloom (esp when P is also
high)
 N2O emissions (global warming)
 excessive growth, lodging
 deficiencies of other elements
 weakened resistance to diseases and insects
 nitrogen toxicities in animal feed.
The typical symptoms;
 A yellowish-green color.

 A distinctly slow and dwarfed growth.

 Drying up or "firing" of leaves, which starts at the bottom of

the plant, proceeding upward. The firing starts at the tip of
the bottom leaves and goes down the center or along the
midrib.
 Phosphorus (P)

Essential for root development,

tillering, early flowering, and ripening.

Deficient in sandy soils with low organic matter

contents, in very acid soils and in alkaline soils.
Phosphorus is generally most available to plants when th
e soil pH is between 6.0 - 6.5. When the soil pH is 6.0, th
e potential for P deficiency for most crops increases.
 Forms of P in soil
P occurs both in organic or inorganic forms.
In rice inorganic form is important.

The inorganic forms are grouped into

 Iron phosphate ( Fe-P)
This is the main form in rice soil.
 Aluminum phosphate (Al-P)
Theses two forms are the main form in acid
sulphate soils, in Malaysia
 P forms .......cont

 calcium phosphate (Ca-P).

 reductant -soluble (Fe-P and Al-P)
 Types of P fertilizers
 Triple superphosphate (TSP), Ca(H2PO4) 2.H2O
18-22% P, 9-14% Ca, 1.4% S . 41-50% P2O5
 Urea phosphate (UP), CO(NH2)2+H3PO4
20% P, 18% N . 46% P2O5
 Diammonium phosphate, (NH4)2 HPO4
20-23% P, 18-21% N . 46-53% P2O5
 Monoammonium phosphate, NH4H2PO4
22% P, 11% N. 51% P2O5
 Method of application
of P fertilizers

 Surface broadcasting.
 Incorporation before transplanting .
 Time of application
of P fertilizers

 At transplanting, or
 During vigorous tillering stage.
 Timing of P .......cont
Split application of P not effective,
 High mobility of P from young to old leaves.
 increased availability of soil P with time
during submergence.
 low leaching losses.

Therefore, total dose as basal during

transplanting is the best
 How much P fertilizer .... Cont

 Where the soil P supply is small, apply 20-30

kg P per ha for each ton of target grain yield
increase.
 If most of the straw is removed from the field
and P input from other sources is small,
apply at least 3 kg P per ton grain harvested
e.g. 15 kg P for a yield of 5 t /ha grain.
 Under degraded soil such as a new irrigated
acid soils, ameliorative applications of 200- 500 kg P
per ha are required.
 Potassium (K)
Essential for root growth and plant vigor.

It also helps against lodging and improves the crop

resistance to diseases.

Become yield limiting in high yielding rice systems

where most of the straw is removed because rice straw
is rich in K
 Types of K fertilizers

 Potassium chloride (KCl),

50% S . Murate of Potash 60% K2O
 Potassium nitrate, KNO3
37% K, 13% N .

 Potassium sulphate, K2 SO4

40-43% K, 18% S .
K deficiency is often associated with iron
toxicity, which is common in acid sulphate
soil.

K deficiency can occurs on poorly drained

soils due to;
i. Toxic substance produced by soils
prevent K uptake, or
ii. Low soil K is released under poorly
drained soils.
 K requirement in rice
The general strategy for K management follows
the same principles given for P, but the K uptake
requirement of rice is much greater than for P.

>80% of K taken up by rice remains in the straw

after harvest, making straw an important input
source to consider when calculating fertilizer K
requirements.
 K requirement in rice .... Cont
The K requirement for rice is
much greater than for P,
 Splitting and timing of
K applications in rice

 1-3 splits.
1st dose apply at or shortly planting
2nd dose apply at panicle initiation (about
40-50 days after planting), or
3rd dose at flowering (60-70 days after
planting)
Acid sulphate soils
 The acids sulphate soil
The nastiest soil in the world.

It is one of the most important constraints to rice

production, yield 1-2 ton/ha

Plants grown in acid sulphate soils are subjected to

micronutrient toxicity, especially
Iron and
Zinc
How are these soils form?

Acid sulfate soils are formed by

bacterial activity in waterlogged
conditions when there is no or
little available oxygen.

Worldwide approx 13 mha

In Asia about 1 m ha
 Pyrite is stable under reducing condition but oxi
dation, following drainage, generates sulphuric aci
d and mobile Fe2+

FeS2 + O2 + H2O → Fe 2+
+ SO4 +H
+

(Pyrite) (iron in sol.) (sulphuric acid)

So long as the oxidation of pyrite continues , the s

oil will produce Fe and acid to the surroundings.
Stunted growth, extremely limited tillering.

Coarse, sparse, damaged root system with a dark

brown to black coating on the root surface and many
dead roots.

Freshly uprooted rice hills often have poor root

systems with many black roots
 
Reduce crop growth and development

Reduce of affect yield components, e.g. kg/ha,

1000-grain wt. , % filled grain
Water management: Use intermittent irrigation and avoid continu
ous flooding

Fertilizer management: Balance the use of fertilizers (NPK or

NPK + lime) to avoid nutrient stress. Apply lime on acid soils. Do
not apply excessive amounts of P and organic matter (manure, str
aw). Use urea (less acidifying) instead of ammonium sulfate (mor
e acidifying).

Soil management: Carry out dry tillage after the rice harvest to
enhance Fe oxidation. This reduces Fe2+ accumulation during the
subsequent flooding period.