• Subject Name: Research Methodology

• Subject Code: MGT507

• Credit Hours: 4

Data Collection

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• Method:

• There are two major approaches to gathering information about a situation,

person, problem or phenomenon. When you undertake a research study, in
most situations, you need to collect the required information; however,
sometimes the information required is already available and need only be
extracted. Based upon these broad approaches to information gathering, data
can be categorized as: primary data; secondary data.

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• Information gathered using the first approach is said to be collected from
primary sources, whereas the sources used in the second approach are called
secondary sources. Examples of primary sources include finding out first-hand
the attitudes of a community towards health services, ascertaining the health
needs of a community, evaluating a social programme, determining the job
satisfaction of the employees of an organization, and ascertaining the quality of
service provided by a worker are examples of information collected from
primary sources.

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• On the other hand, the use of census data to obtain information on the age–sex
structure of a population, the use of hospital records to find out the morbidity
and mortality patterns of a community, the use of an organization’s records to
ascertain its activities, and the collection of data from sources such as articles,
journals, magazines, books and periodicals to obtain historical and other types
of information, are all classified as secondary sources. In summary, primary
sources provide first-hand information and secondary sources provide second-
hand data. The below figure shows the various methods of data collection.

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Copyright © 2016-2018 Lincoln University College 5
• Types of Research Methods:

• Experiments
• People who take part in research involving experiments might be asked to
complete various tests to measure their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall,
attention, concentration, reasoning ability etc.) usually verbally, on paper or by
computer. The results of different groups are then compared. Participants
should not be anxious about performing well but simply do their best. The aim
of these tests is not to judge people or measure so-called intelligence, but to
look for links between performance and other factors. If computers are used,
this has to be done in such a way that no previous knowledge of computers is
necessary. So people should not be put off by this either.
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• Surveys
• Surveys involve collecting information, usually from fairly large groups of people,
by means of questionnaires but other techniques such as interviews or
telephoning may also be used. There are different types of survey. The most
straightforward type (the “one shot survey”) is administered to a sample of
people at a set point in time. Another type is the “before and after survey”
which people complete before a major event or experience and then again
afterwards.

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• Questionnaires
• Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information from a large number of
people and/or people who may not have the time to attend an interview or take
part in experiments. They enable people to take their time, think about it and
come back to the questionnaire later. Participants can state their views or
feelings privately without worrying about the possible reaction of the
researcher. Unfortunately, some people may still be inclined to try to give
socially acceptable answers. People should be encouraged to answer the
questions as honestly as possible so as to avoid the researchers drawing false
conclusions from their study.
• 

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• Interviews
• Interviews are usually carried out in person i.e. face-to-face but can also be
administered by telephone or using more advance computer technology such as
Skype. Sometimes they are held in the interviewee’s home, sometimes at a
more neutral place. It is important for interviewees to decide whether they are
comfortable about inviting the researcher into their home and whether they
have a room or area where they can speak freely without disturbing other
members of the household.

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• Case studies
• Case studies usually involve the detailed study of a particular case (a person or
small group). Various methods of data collection and analysis are used but this
typically includes observation and interviews and may involve consulting other
people and personal or public records. The researchers may be interested in a
particular phenomenon (e.g. coping with a diagnosis or a move into residential
care) and select one or more individuals in the respective situation on whom to
base their case study/studies. Case studies have a very narrow focus which
results in detailed descriptive data which is unique to the case(s) studied.
Nevertheless, it can be useful in clinical settings and may even challenge existing
theories and practices in other domains.

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• Participant and non-participant observation
• Studies which involve observing people can be divided into two main categories,
namely participant observation and non-participant observation.

• In participant observation studies, the researcher becomes (or is already) part of

the group to be observed. This involves fitting in, gaining the trust of members of
the group and at the same time remaining sufficiently detached as to be able to
carry out the observation. The observations made might be based on what people
do, the explanations they give for what they do, the roles they have, relationships
amongst them and features of the situation in which they find themselves. The
researcher should be open about what s/he is doing, give the participants in the
study the chance see the results and comment on them, and take their comments
seriously.
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• Observational trials
• Observational trials study health issues in large groups of people but in natural
settings. Longitudinal approaches examine the behaviour of a group of people
over a fairly lengthy period of time e.g. monitoring cognitive decline from mid to
late life paying specific attention to diet and lifestyle factors. In some cases, the
researchers might monitor people when they are middle-aged and then again
after 15 years and so on. The aim of such studies is usually to determine
whether there is a link between one factor and another (e.g. whether high
alcohol consumption is correlated with dementia). The group of people involved
in this kind of study is known as a cohort and they share a certain characteristic
or experience within a defined period. Within the cohort, there may be
subgroups (e.g. people who drink moderately, people who drink heavily, people
who binge drink etc.) which allow for further comparisons to be made.
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• Studies using the Delphi method
• The Delphi method was developed in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s
in the military domain. It has been considered particularly useful in helping
researchers determine the range of opinions which exist on a particular subject,
in investigating issues of policy or clinical relevance and in trying to come to a
consensus on controversial issues. The objectives can be roughly divided into
those which aim to measure diversity and those which aim to reach consensus.

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• Quantitative:

• To draw a clear distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods of data

collection is both difficult and inappropriate because of the overlap between
them. The difference between them mainly lies in the manner in which a
method is applied in an actual data collection situation. Use of these methods in
quantitative research demands standardization of questions to be asked of the
respondents, a rigid adherence to their structure and order, an adoption of a
process that is tested and predetermined and making sure of the validity and
reliability of the process as well as the questions. However, the methods of data
collection in qualitative research follow a convention which is almost opposite to
quantitative research.

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• There are three main methods of data collection in qualitative research:
• 1. Unstructured interviews;
• 2. Participant observation;
• 3. Secondary sources.

• In-depth interviews

• (1) it involves face-to-face, repeated interaction between the researcher and his/her
informant(s); and
• (2) it seeks to understand the latter’s perspectives.

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• Focus group interviews
• The only difference between a focus group interview and an in-depth interview
is that the former is undertaken with a group and the latter with an individual. In
a focus group interview, you explore the perceptions, experiences and
understandings of a group of people who have some experience in common
with regard to a situation or event. For example, you may explore with relevant
groups such issues as domestic violence, physical disability or refugees.

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• Narratives
• The narrative technique of gathering information has even less structure than
the focus group. Narratives have almost no predetermined contents except that
the researcher seeks to hear a person’s retelling of an incident or happening in
his/her life. Essentially, the person tells his/her story about an incident or
situation and you, as the researcher, listen passively. Occasionally, you
encourage the individual by using active listening techniques; that is, you say
words such as ‘uh huh’, ‘mmmm’, ‘yeah’, ‘right’ and nod as appropriate.
Basically, you let the person talk freely and without interrupting. Narratives are a
very powerful method of data collection for situations which are sensitive in
nature.

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• Oral histories
• Oral histories, like narratives, involve the use of both passive and active
listening. Oral histories, however, are more commonly used for learning about a
historical event or episode that took place in the past or for gaining information
about a cultural, custom or story that has been passed from generation to
generation. Narratives are more about a person’s personal experiences whereas
historical, social or cultural events are the subjects of oral histories.

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• Qualitative:
• The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on
processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured [if
measured at all] in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency.
Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the
intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the
situational constraints that shape inquiry. Such researchers emphasize the value-
laden nature of inquiry. They seek answers to questions that stress how social
experience is created and given meaning. In contrast, quantitative studies
emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between
variables, not processes. Qualitative forms of inquiry are considered by many
social and Behavioral scientists to be as much a perspective on how to approach
investigating a research problem as it is a method.
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• Characteristics of Qualitative Research:
• Below are the three key elements that define a qualitative research study and
the applied forms each take in the investigation of a research problem. 

• The Design
• Naturalistic -- refers to studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally;
nonmanipulative and noncontrolling; the researcher is open to whatever emerges [i.e.,
there is a lack of predetermined constraints on findings].
• Emergent -- acceptance of adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations
change; the researcher avoids rigid designs that eliminate responding to opportunities to
pursue new paths of discovery as they emerge.

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• Purposeful -- cases for study [e.g., people, organizations, communities, cultures, events,
critical incidences] are selected because they are “information rich” and illuminative. That
is, they offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest; sampling is aimed at
insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization derived from a sample and
applied to a population.

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• The Collection of Data

• Data -- observations yield a detailed, "thick description" [in-depth

understanding]; interviews capture direct quotations about people’s personal
perspectives and lived experiences; often derived from carefully conducted case
studies and review of material culture.

• Personal experience and engagement -- researcher has direct contact with and
gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon under investigation; the
researcher’s personal experiences and insights are an important part of the
inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon.

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• Empathic neutrality -- an empathic stance in working with study respondents
seeks vicarious understanding without judgment [neutrality] by showing
openness, sensitivity, respect, awareness, and responsiveness; in observation, it
means being fully present [mindfulness].

• Dynamic systems -- there is attention to process; assumes change is ongoing,

whether the focus is on an individual, an organization, a community, or an entire
culture, therefore, the researcher is mindful of and attentive to system and
situational dynamics.

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• Basic Research Design for Qualitative Studies:

• Goals
• Describe the central research problem being addressed but avoid describing any
anticipated outcomes. Questions to ask yourself are: Why is your study worth
doing? What issues do you want to clarify, and what practices and policies do
you want it to influence? Why do you want to conduct this study, and why
should the reader care about the results?

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• Conceptual Framework

• Questions to ask yourself are: What do you think is going on with the issues,
settings, or people you plan to study? What theories, beliefs, and prior research
findings will guide or inform your research, and what literature, preliminary
studies, and personal experiences will you draw upon for understanding the
people or issues you are studying? Note to not only report the results of other
studies in your review of the literature, but note the methods used as well. If
appropriate, describe why earlier studies using quantitative methods were
inadequate in addressing the research problem.

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• Research Questions

• Usually there is a research problem that frames your qualitative study and that
influences your decision about what methods to use, but qualitative designs
generally lack an accompanying hypothesis or set of assumptions because the
findings are emergent and unpredictable. In this context, more specific research
questions are generally the result of an interactive design process rather than
the starting point for that process. Questions to ask yourself are: What do you
specifically want to learn or understand by conducting this study? What do you
not know about the things you are studying that you want to learn? What
questions will your research attempt to answer, and how are these questions
related to one another?

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• Methods
• Structured approaches to applying a method or methods to your study help to
ensure that there is comparability of data across sources and researchers and,
thus, they can be useful in answering questions that deal with differences
between phenomena and the explanation for these differences [variance
questions]. An unstructured approach allows the researcher to focus on the
particular phenomena studied. This facilitates an understanding of the processes
that led to specific outcomes, trading generalizability and comparability for
internal validity and contextual and evaluative understanding. Questions to ask
yourself are: What will you actually do in conducting this study? What
approaches and techniques will you use to collect and analyze your data, and
how do these constitute an integrated strategy?

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• Validity
• In contrast to quantitative studies where the goal is to design, in advance,
“controls” such as formal comparisons, sampling strategies, or statistical
manipulations to address anticipated and unanticipated threats to validity,
qualitative researchers must attempt to rule out most threats to validity after
the research has begun by relying on evidence collected during the research
process itself in order to effectively argue that any alternative explanations for a
phenomenon are implausible. Questions to ask yourself are: How might your
results and conclusions be wrong? What are the plausible alternative
interpretations and validity threats to these, and how will you deal with these?
How can the data that you have, or that you could potentially collect, support or
challenge your ideas about what’s going on? Why should we believe your
results?
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• Strengths of Using Qualitative Methods:

• Obtain a more realistic view of the lived world that cannot be understood or experienced
in numerical data and statistical analysis;
• Provide the researcher with the perspective of the participants of the study through
immersion in a culture or situation and as a result of direct interaction with them;
• Allow the researcher to describe existing phenomena and current situations;
• Develop flexible ways to perform data collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation
of collected information;
• Yield results that can be helpful in pioneering new ways of understanding

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• Limitations of Using Qualitative Methods:

• Drifting away from the original objectives of the study in response to the
changing nature of the context under which the research is conducted;
• Arriving at different conclusions based on the same information depending on
the personal characteristics of the researcher;
• Replication of a study is very difficult;
• Research using human subjects increases the chance of ethical dilemmas that
undermine the overall validity of the study;

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