Chapter 3

Thinking Like a
Researcher
Language of Research

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 
Language of Research

Conceptual
Conceptual
Concepts
Concepts Constructs
schemes
schemes

Operational
Operational
Models
Models definitions
definitions
Terms used
in research
Variables

Propositions/
Propositions/
Hypotheses
Hypotheses
3-2
Language of Research
• A concept is a bundle of meanings or
characteristics associated with certain concrete,
unambiguous events, objects, conditions, or
situations.
• Conceptualization – The mental process whereby
fuzzy and imprecise notions (concepts) are made
more specific and precise.
• A construct is a definition specifically invented to
represent an abstract phenomena for a given
research project.
• A conceptual scheme is the interrelationship
between concepts and constructs.
3-3
 Conceptualization
• Conceptualization – The process through
which we specify what we mean when we use
particular terms in research.

• We cannot meaningfully answer a question

without a working agreement about the
meaning of the outcome.

• Conceptualization processes a specific

agreed-on meaning for a concept for the
purposes of research.
 Concepts to Variables to Indicators

Research normally begins at the

theoretical level
– Concepts developed from theory, inductive
method
– Should have general agreement on what a
concept means - definition
– Conceptualization is the process of refining the
definition of a concept to allow for
operationalization
 Concepts to Variables to Indicators

• Next step is to operationalize the concept

– This step allows us to observe the real world
– Move from abstract concepts to variables that can be
observed and measured
– Want achieve accuracy and precision
• Concepts are abstract; variables are concrete and specific
– Comprehensive definition provides the framework for
operationalization
Real, Nominal, and Operational
Definitions
• Specification – The process through which concepts are
made more specific.
• A nominal definition is one that is simply assigned to a
term without any claim that the definition represents a
“real” entity.
• An operational definition specifies precisely how a
concept will be measured – that is, the operations we will
perform.
• Creating Conceptual Order
1. Conceptualization
2. Nominal Definition
3. Operational Definition
4. Real World Measurement
 Concepts to Variables to Indicators

• Example: operationalize conservatism‫المحافظة – كون الشخص‬

‫محافظ‬
– Def.: A political philosophy emphasizing traditional
social values, classical liberal economic doctrine
and opposition to radical change
– ‫ يؤمن بالنظام‬,‫منطق فلسفي سياسي يؤكد على القيم االجتماعية التقليدية‬
‫ ويعارض التغييرات الجذرية‬,‫االقتصادي الليبرالي الكالسيكي‬
 Abstract
Dimensions Conservatism concept Variables
of the Concept employed as
measures of
the concept

Economic
Social Conservatism
Conservatism

Support for
Opposed to Economic
Traditional Values Belief in Free Market
(e.g. family,religious) Redistribution

• Opposed to same sex • priority on lowering • support for free

marriage taxes trade
• Opposed to abortion • opposed to • opposed to ‘big’
progressive taxation government

Last row are questions that would be included in a survey questionnaire

Concepts to Variables to Indicators

 Measures are simple direct items that provide

data on a concept (e.g. income, age)
 Indicators, on the other hand, normally consist
of several measures combined in some way to
provide data on a more complex and indirect
phenomenon (e.g. conservatism)
 Explaining and justifying the choices that were
made in operationalizing concepts is crucial
– Replication and transparency in research make this
necessary
Language of Research

Clear conceptualization
of concepts
Success
of
Research Shared understanding
of concepts

3-11
Job Redesign
Constructs and Concepts

3-12
Language of Research

• An operational definition defines a variable in terms

of specific measurement and testing criteria.
• Operationalization is a process of quantifying
variables for the purpose of measuring their:
occurrence, strength and frequency.
• A variable is used as a synonym for the construct
being studied.
– A variable is something that takes on different values
or categories; e.g., gender.
– A constant is something that cannot vary, a single
value or category; e.g., male and female 3-13
Operational Definitions

How can we define the variable

“class level of students”?

Freshman < 30 credit hours

Sophomore 30-50 credit hours
Junior 60-89 credit hours
Senior > 90 credit hours

3-14
A Variable Is the Property Being
Studied

Event Act

Variable
Variable

Characteristic Trait

Attribute

3-15
Categorical versus Quantitative
Variables
– Categorical Variables
• varies by type or kind
• e.g., gender, religion, college major, method of
therapy
– Quantitative Variables
• varies by degree or amount
• e.g., reaction time, height, age, anxiety level
Types of Variables

Male/Female
Dichotomous
Dichotomous
Male/Female
Employed/
Employed/Unemployed
Unemployed

Ethnic
Ethnicbackground
background
Discrete
Discrete Educational
Educationallevel
level
Religious
Religiousaffiliation
affiliation

Income
Income
Temperature
Continuous
Continuous Temperature
Age
Age

3-17
Independent and Dependent Variable
Synonyms

Independent Dependent Variable

Variable (IV) (DV)
Predictor Criterion
Presumed cause Presumed effect
Stimulus Response
Predicted from… Predicted to….
Antecedent Consequence
Manipulated Measured outcome
3-18
Independent versus Dependent
Variables
– Independent Variable (IV)
• presumed to cause changes in another variable
• variable manipulated by the researcher

– Dependent Variable (DV)

• the presumed effect or outcome of the study
• variable that is measured by the researcher
• variable that influenced by the IV
Relationships Among Variable Types

3-20
Mediating and Moderating
Variables
– Mediating Variable
• occurs between two other variables in a causal chain
• also called intervening variable
• e.g., anxiety causes distraction (mediating variable)
which affects memory
– Moderating Variable
• qualify a causal relationship as dependent on
another variable
• e.g., the impact of anxiety on memory depends on
level of fatigue (moderating variable)
Relationships Among Variable
Types

3-22
Moderating Variables (MV)

• The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead

to higher productivity (DV), especially among
younger workers (MV)
• The switch to commission from a salary
compensation system (IV) will lead to increased
sales (DV) per worker, especially more
experienced workers (MV).
• The loss of mining jobs (IV) leads to acceptance
of higher-risk behaviors to earn a family-
supporting income (DV) – particularly among
those with a limited education (MV).
3-23
 Extraneous Variables
– a variable that competes with the IV in explaining the DV.
– sometimes called third variables or confounding
variables.
– Extraneous variables are variables that could conceivably
affect a given relationship.
– Some can be treated as independent or moderating
variables or assumed or excluded from the study.
– If an extraneous variable might confound the study, the
extraneous variable may be introduced as a control
variable to help interpret the relationship between
variables.
Extraneous Variables (EV)

• With new customers (EV-control), a switch to

commission from a salary compensation system
(IV) will lead to increased sales productivity (DV)
per worker, especially among younger workers
(MV).

• Among residents with less than a high school

education (EV-control), the loss of jobs (IV) leads
to high-risk behaviors (DV), especially due to the
proximity of the firing range (MV).

3-25
Language of Research

• A proposition is a statement about observable

phenomena that may be judged as true or false.

• A hypothesis is a proposition formulated for

empirical testing.

3-26
Propositions and Hypotheses

Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-

than-average achievement motivation
(variable).

Generalization
Brand managers in Company Z (cases) have
a higher-than-average achievement
motivation (variable).

3-27
Hypothesis Formats

Descriptive Research Question

Hypothesis What is the market
In Detroit, our potato share for our potato
chip market share chips in Detroit?
stands at 13.7%. Are American cities
American cities are experiencing budget
experiencing budget difficulties?
difficulties.

3-28
Relational Hypotheses

Correlational Causal
Young women (under 35) An increase in family
purchase fewer units of income leads to an
our product than women increase in the
who are older than 35. percentage of income
saved.
The number of suits sold Loyalty to a grocery store
varies directly with the increases the probability
level of the business of purchasing that store’s
cycle. private brand products.

3-29
The Role of Hypotheses

Guide
Guide the
the direction
direction of
of the
the study
study

Identify
Identify relevant
relevant facts
facts

Suggest
Suggest most
most appropriate
appropriate research
research
design
design

Provide
Provide framework
framework for
for organizing
organizing
resulting
resulting conclusions
conclusions

3-30
Characteristics of
Strong Hypotheses

Adequate
Adequate
AA
Strong
Strong Testable
Testable
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Is
Is
Better
Better
than
than rivals
rivals
3-31
Language of Research

• A theory is a set of systematically interrelated

concepts, definitions, and propositions that are
advanced to explain or predict phenomena.
• A model is a representation of a system
constructed to study some aspect of that
system.

3-32
Theory within Research

3-33
The Role of Reasoning

3-34
A Model within Research

3-35
The Scientific Method

Direct
Direct observation
observation

Clearly
Clearly defined
defined variables
variables

Clearly
Clearly defined
defined methods
methods

Empirically
Empirically testable
testable

Elimination
Elimination of
of alternatives
alternatives

Statistical
Statistical justification
justification

Self-correcting
Self-correcting process
process

3-36
Researchers

•Encounter problems
•State problems
•Propose hypotheses
•Deduce outcomes
•Formulate rival
hypotheses
•Devise and conduct
empirical tests
•Draw conclusions

3-37
Measurement

Select
measurable phenomena

Develop a set of
mapping rules

Apply the mapping rule

to each phenomenon

11-38
Language of Research

 Measurement in research consists of assigning

numbers to empirical events, objects or
properties, or activities in compliance with a set of
rules. This slide illustrates the three-part process
of measurement.

3-39
Language of Research

• Classification means that numbers are used to group or sort

responses.
• Order means that the numbers are ordered. One number is
greater than, less than, or equal to another number.
• Distance means that differences between numbers can be
measured.
• Origin means that the number series has a unique origin
indicated by the number zero.
Combinations of these characteristics provide four widely used
classifications of measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio.

3-40
Types of Scales

Nominal
Nominal

Ordinal
Ordinal

interval
interval

Ratio
Ratio

11-41
Levels of Measurement

Classification
Classification
Nominal
Nominal

Ordinal
Ordinal

interval
interval

Ratio
Ratio

11-42
Nominal Scales

Mutually exclusive
and
Collectively exhaustive
categories
Exhibits only classification

11-43
Language of Research

• Nominal scales collect information on a variable that can be

grouped into categories that are mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive.
• The counting of members in each group is the only possible
arithmetic operation when a nominal scale is employed.
• Nominal scales are the least powerful of the four data types.
They suggest no order or distance relationship and have no
arithmetic origin.
– Examples: gender, religious affiliation, college major, hair
color, birthplace, nationality

3-44
Levels of Measurement

Classification
Classification
Nominal
Nominal

Classification
Classification
Ordinal
Ordinal Order
Order

interval
interval

Ratio
Ratio

11-45
Ordinal Scales

• Characteristics of
nominal scale
• Order
• Implies greater than
or less than

11-46
Levels of Measurement –
Ordinal Scales
– Variables with attributes we can logically rank
order.
– Examples: socioeconomic status, level of
conflict, prejudice, conservativeness, hardness
– Ordinal level of measurement refers to
categories for which there is an order but little
else
• E.g. Level of education where 1=did not complete
high school, 2=high school graduate, 3=some post
secondary, 4=post secondary degree

3-47
Levels of Measurement –
Ordinal Variables

• Higher values indicate higher levels of the variables but

the distances between categories are not always equal
• Where to break the categories depends on theory or
follows established procedure
• E.g.
Please circle the response that corresponds most closely
to your own opinion:
The United Nations keeps the world safe.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree
Levels of Measurement

Classification
Classification
Nominal
Nominal

Classification
Classification
Ordinal
Ordinal Order
Order
Classification
Classification Distance
Distance
interval
interval Order
Order

Ratio
Ratio

11-49
Levels of Measurement –
Interval Variables
– Variables for which the actual distance between
attributes has meaning.

– Examples: temperature, (Fehrenheit), IQ score

3-50
Levels of Measurement

Classification
Classification
Nominal
Nominal

Classification
Classification
Ordinal
Ordinal Order
Order
Classification
Classification Distance
Distance
interval
interval Order
Order
Classification
Classification Distance
Distance
Ratio
Ratio Order
Order Natural
NaturalOrigin
Origin

11-51
Ratio Scales

Characteristics of
nominal, ordinal,
interval scales
Absolute zero

11-52
Levels of Measurement –
Ratio Variables
– Variables whose attributes meet the
requirements of a interval measure, and has a
true zero point.

– Examples: temperature (Kelvin), age, length of

time, number of organizations, number of
groups, number of As received in college

3-53
Variables & Scales

11-54
Variables & Scales

A measure can be regrouped (recoded) to form a

measure at a lower but not a higher level of
measurement
– E.g. interval can become ordinal or nominal; ordinal
can become nominal; Income that is measured in
exact dollar amount (ratio) can be regrouped into
categories of $25000
• 0 to $25000 = 1
• $25001 to $50000 = 2
• $50001 and over = 3
– The variable is now an ordinal level variable
From Investigative to
Measurement Questions

11-56
Hypotheses (Some Types)

• Null
• Alternative
• Directional
• Other

57
 Null Hypothesis
• The absence of a relationship or
difference in the results; any relationship
or difference is due to chance or
sampling error
• Example: There is no statistically
significance difference between _____
and ____ regarding ______.
Alternative/Directional

Expresses a relationship Expresses a

between the variables relationship between
under study the variables under
Alternative: points a study
direction and requires Directional: points a
“assumption” that is direction and requires
specified and evidence via
objective literature

59
 Hypotheses

Support Not: prove, accept,

Not supported rejection (a finality
to such verbs)

60
 Example of Hypothesis
Null
– No relationship exists between levels of funding and
staffing and the existence of a formal marketing plan.
Alternative
– Formal marketing plans exist in institutions with
greater levels of funding and staffing.
Directional
– Lower funding and staffing results in lower levels of
marketing planning.

61
Terms used in research  Hypothesis Formats

A descriptive hypothesis is a statement about the existence,

size, form, or distribution of a variable. Researchers often use
a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis.

Example:

Descriptive Hypothesis
In Riyadh, our dates market share stands at 33%.

Research Question
What is the market share for our dates in Riyadh?
Terms used in research  Hypothesis Formats

Descriptive hypothesis versus research question.

Either format is acceptable, but the descriptive hypothesis has

three advantages over the research question.
1.Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to crystallize
their thinking about the likely relationships.
2.Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to think about
the implications of a supported or rejected finding.
3.Descriptive hypotheses are useful for testing statistical
significance.
Terms used in research  Hypothesis Formats

A relational hypothesis is a statement about the relationship

between two variables with respect to some case. Relational
hypotheses may be correlational or explanatory (causal).
– A correlational hypothesis is a statement indicating that
variables occur together in some specified manner without
implying that one causes the other.
– A causal (explanatory) hypothesis is a statement that
describes a relationship between two variables in which
one variable leads to a specified effect on the other
variable.
Terms used in research  Hypothesis Formats

Example:
Correlational
Young women (under 35) purchase fewer units of our product
than women who are older than 35.

Causal
An increase in family income leads to an increase in the
percentage of income saved.
Terms used in research  Hypothesis  A Strong
Hypothesis

A Strong Hypothesis has the following characteristics:

1.Adequate

2.Testable

3.Better than rivals

What is a conceptual framework?

A written or visual presentation that:

– “explains either graphically, or in narrative form, the main

things to be studied – the key factors, concepts or variables -

– and the presumed relationship among them”.

(Miles and Huberman, 1994, P18)

 What inputs go into developing a
conceptual framework?
Experiential knowledge of student and supervisor:

– Technical knowledge.
– Research background.
– Personal experience.
– Data (particularly for qualitative).

Literature review:

– Prior ‘related’ theory – concepts and relationships that are used

to represent the world, what is happening and why.
– Prior ‘related’ research – how people have tackled ‘similar’
problems and what they have learned.
– Other theory and research - approaches, lines of investigation
and theory that are not obviously relevant/previously used.
How might a conceptual framework be
developed?

The pieces of the conceptual framework are borrowed but the

researcher provides the structure. To develop the structure you
could:

– Identify the key words used in the subject area of your study.

– Draw out the key things within something you have already
written about the subject area – literature review.

– Take one key concept, idea or term at a time and brainstorm all
the other things that might be related and then go back and
select those that seem most relevant.

Whichever is used it will take time and a number of iterations and the
focus is both on the content and the inter-relationships.