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Precipitation
 Definition
All types of moisture reaching the surface of earth from
atmosphere.
.
Precipitation is the basic input to the hydrology

 Factors determining for

precipitation or the
amount of atmospheric
moisture over a region
 Climate
 Geograph
 Oceanysurfaces is the
chief source of moisture
for precipitation
Forms of precipitation
 Measurement Methods
Measurement of precipitation (Rain and Snow) can be
done by various devices. These measuring devices and
techniques are;

• Rain Gauges
• Snow Gauges
• Radars
• Satellites
• Scratching of snow packs
• Water equivalent in snow packs
Types of rain gauges
There are two main types of rain gages which are used
to measure the precipitation. These are;

1. Non recording rain gauges

2. Recording rain gauges

Non recording rain gauges
• It is a rain gage which does not provide the
distribution of amount of precipitation in a day.
• It simply gives the amount of precipitation after
24 hours (daily precipitation).
Recording rain gauges
These rain gauges are also called integrating rain
gauges since they record cumulative rainfall. In
addition to the total amount of rainfall at a station, it
gives the times of onset and ending of rains
(thereby gives the duration of rainfall events)
Types of recording Rain gauges

There are three main types of recording rain gauges

1. Tipping bucket type rain gauges

2. Float type rain gauges

3. Weighing type rain gauges

1. Tipping bucket gauges
A
tipping bucket rain gauge is used
for
measurement of rainfall. It measures the rainfall
with a least count of 1 mm and gives out one
electrical pulse for every millimeter of rainfall.
The receiver is 200 mm in diameter.
2. Weighing type gauges
• It consists of a storage bin, which is weighed to record the
mass.
• It weighs rain or snow which falls into a bucket, set on a
platform with a spring or lever balance.
• The increasing weight of the bucket and its contents are
recorded on a chart.
• The record shows accumulation of precipitation.
3. Float type recording gauges
• The rise of float with increasing catch of rainfall is recorded. Some
gauges must be emptied manually while others are emptied
automatically using self starting siphons.
• In most gauges oil or mercury is the float and is placed in the
receiver, but in some cases the receiver rests on a bath of oil or
mercury and the float measures the rise of oil or mercury displaced
by the increasing weight of the receiver as the rainfall catch
freezes.
• Float may get damaged by rainfall catch freezer
 Errors in precipitation measurement by Rain Gauges

 Instrumental errors
 Errors in scale reading
 Dent in receivers
 Dent in measuring cylinders
 About 0.25mm of water is initially required to wet the surface of
gauge
 Rain gauges splash from collector
 Frictional effects
 Non verticality of measuring cylinders (10° inclination gives 1.5%
less precipitation)
 Loss of water by evaporation
 Leakage in measuring cylinder
 Wind speed reduces measured amount of rain in the rain
gauges.
Measurement of snow
In case of snow fall
following two properties of
more interest are
measured.
•
1. Depth of snow at a
particular place in
mm/inches

2. Equivalent amount of
water in mm
1. Depth of snow

Depth of snow fall at a particular place can be 

measured by the following methods.

a. Standard rain gauges without collectors

b. Snow gauges

c. By scratching snowpacks
a. Standard rain gauges
• Standard rain gauges can also be used for
measuring the snow depth, with some alterations
in the arrangement of rain gauges, particularly,
the collectors are not used

• On a paved surface with snow over it, scratching

that snow layer with some scrapper helps to
measure the depth of snow fall with a tape. Visual
observation and with help of measuring tape helps
to measure the depth of snow
b. Snow gauges

snow gauge is a
A
type instrument
of to measure the
used
solid form of
precipitation.
c. By scratching snow packs
A measured amount of hot water is added into the
cylinder which will melt the snow. Now measure the
total depth of water in the cylinder “h1”

h = h1-h2

Where,

h2 = measured amount of hot

water h = equivalent amount of
2. Measurement of equivalent
amount of water in a snow pack
The equivalent amount of water in a snow pack can
be measured by

a. Heating

b. Weighing
a. By Heating
• The equivalent amount in mm of water can be
obtained by heating the cylinder.
• It will melt the snow and the depth of the liquid
water can be measured with a measuring stick but
this approach is adjustable because some water may
get evaporated during the heating.
b. By Weighing
Weight is measured either by weighing type rain gauges or by using a snow
gauge.

W=W1-W2

W1= weight of snow + empty cylinder

W2= Weight of empty cylinder
W= Weight of snow

By using weight volume relationship

Γ = Weight/ Volume Γ

= W/ A.h

h = W/A Γ
Where,

h = Equivalent amount of water in snow.

3. Equivalent water in snow
• Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) is a common snow
pack measurement.
• It is the amount of water contained within the snow
pack.
• It can be thought of as the depth of water that
would theoretically result if you melted the entire
snow pack instantaneously.
Equipment are used;
• Standard rain gauges without receivers
• Weighing type rain gauges
• Snow gauges
Radar Measurements
• A weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation,
calculate its motion, estimate its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.),
and forecast its future position and intensity.
• Weather radars are mostly Doppler radars, capable of detecting
the motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of the
precipitation.
• Both types of data can be analyzed to determine the structure
of storms and their potential to cause severe weather.
Radio Detection And Ranging(RADAR) Measu
• National weather system (NWS)
adopts the reflectivity/rainfall
equations for the description of
rainfall intensity by RADAR.
• “a” and “b” are the coefficients of
size distribution of drop and drop
terminal velocity.
• Ze = 200 R1.6 (for stratiform
precipitation)
• · Ze = 55 R1.6  (for convective
precipitation)
• Ze = 140 R1.6  (drizzle)·
• Ze = 500 R1.6  (thundershowers)
• · Ze = 2000R2.0 (snow)

• It is expressed mm6/cm3
 Satellite Measurements
• A weather satellite is a type of
satellite that is primarily used
to the weather
monitor andEarth.
the
climate of
• These meteorological
satellites, however, see more
than clouds and cloud
systems, like other types of
environmental information
collected using weather
satellites.
• Global Precipitation
Measuring (GPM) satellite is
the best example ofsattelite
measurements.
Interpretation Of Precipitation Data
Interpretation of missing precipitation data includes;

1. Estimating missing precipitation data at a station

2. Checking inconsistency in particular data at a

station
3. Averaging precipitation over an area
1. Estimating missing precipitation data
at a station
Missing precipitation data is estimated by two
commonly used methods.

• Arithmetic Mean Method

• Normal Ratio Method

(NRM)
a. Arithmetic Mean Method
• Arithmetic mean method is used when normal
annual precipitation is within 10% of the gauge for
which data are being reconstructed.
• This method is least accurate however.

Pm =

Where:
Pm = precipitation at the missing location
Pi = precipitation at index stations I
N = number of rain gauges
Problem
Example: Using Arithmetic Average Method, find average rainfall over a
catchment. The rain gage data is: 12.6, 18.8, 14.8, 10.4 and
16.2 mm.

Solution:

Pav  P  P  P ......  Pn =
n
b. Normal ratio method (NRM)
• Normal ratio method (NRM) is used when the normal annual
precipitation at any of the index station differs from that of the
interpolation station by more than 10%.
• In this method, the precipitation amounts at the index stations are
weighted by the ratios of their normal annual precipitation data in a
relationship of the form:

Where:
Pm = precipitation at the missing location
Pi = precipitation at index station
Nm = average annual rain at ‘missing data’ gauge
Ni = average annual rain at gauge
N = number of rain gauges
Example

Find out the missing storm precipitation of station ‘C’ given in the following
table (can we apply Simple Arithmetic Mean Method to Approach the
Solution?)

Station A B C D E
Storm 9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0
precipitation (cm)
Normal Annual 100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5
precipitation
(cm)

Continued
…
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Solution
In this example the storm precipitation and normal annual
precipitations at stations A, B, D and E are given and missing
precipitation at station ‘C’ is to be calculated whose normal annual
precipitation is known. We will determine first that whether
arithmetic mean or normal ratio method is to be applied.

10% of Nc = 93.5x10/100 = 9.35

Afterthe addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get 93.5+9.35=102.85

And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15

So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to

84.15.

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Solution
If any value of Na, Nb, Nd or Ne lies beyond this range, then normal ratio method
would be used.It is clear from data in table above that Nb, Nd and Ne values are out
of this range so the normal ratio method is applicable here, according to which

in
Px = 1n  N x P i
N
Pc= (1/4 )(93.5 x 9.7/100.3+ 93.5 x 8.3/109.5+ 93.5 x 11.7/125.7+ 93.5 x
8.0/117.5) = 7.8 cm

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kashifnazir@cuiatd.edu.pk

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