PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College

CHAPTER 1
The Human
Body: An
Orientation:
Part A
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy: The study of structure

• Subdivisions:
• Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface,
and systemic anatomy)
• Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)
• Developmental (e.g., embryology)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Physiology: The study of function at many

levels
• Subdivisions are based on organ systems
(e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Essential tools for the study of physiology:

• Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic
to cellular and molecular)
• Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical
currents, pressure, and movement)
• Basic chemical principles

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Principle of Complementarity

• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.

• Function always reflects structure
• What a structure can do depends on its
specific form

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical: atoms and molecules (Chapter 2)

• Cellular: cells and their organelles (Chapter 3)
• Tissue: groups of similar cells (Chapter 4)
• Organ: contains two or more types of tissues
• Organ system: organs that work closely
together
• Organismal: all organ systems

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Atoms Molecule Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

2 Cellular level
1 Chemical level Cells are made up of
Atoms combine to form molecules. molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue

Cardiovascular
system
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar
Heart
types of cells.
Blood
Blood vessel (organ)
vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.

6 Organismal level 5 Organ system level

The human organism is made up Organ systems consist of different
of many organ systems. organs that work together closely.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1

 Atoms Molecule

1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to form molecules.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 1

 Atoms Molecule Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

2 Cellular level
1 Chemical level Cells are made up of
Atoms combine to form molecules. molecules.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 2

 Atoms Molecule Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

2 Cellular level
1 Chemical level Cells are made up of
Atoms combine to form molecules. molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue

3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar
types of cells.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 3

 Atoms Molecule Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

2 Cellular level
1 Chemical level Cells are made up of
Atoms combine to form molecules. molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue

3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar
types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 4

 Atoms Molecule Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

2 Cellular level
1 Chemical level Cells are made up of
Atoms combine to form molecules. molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue

Cardiovascular
system
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar
Heart
types of cells.
Blood
Blood vessel (organ)
vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.

5 Organ system level

Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 5

 Atoms Molecule Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

2 Cellular level
1 Chemical level Cells are made up of
Atoms combine to form molecules. molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue

Cardiovascular
system
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar
Heart
types of cells.
Blood
Blood vessel (organ)
vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.

6 Organismal level 5 Organ system level

The human organism is made up Organ systems consist of different
of many organ systems. organs that work together closely.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.1, step 6

 Overview of Organ Systems

• Note major organs and functions of the 11

organ systems (Fig. 1.3)

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 Hair

Skin Nails

(a) Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering, and
protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3a
 Bones

Joint

(b) Skeletal System

Protects and supports body organs,
and provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement. Blood cells
are formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3b
 Skeletal
muscles

(c) Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression. Main-
tains posture, and produces heat.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3c
 Brain

Nerves
Spinal
cord

(d) Nervous System

As the fast-acting control system of
the body, it responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3d
 Pineal gland

Pituitary
Thyroid gland
gland
Thymus

Adrenal
gland
Pancreas

Testis

Ovary

(e) Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that regulate
processes such as growth, reproduction,
and nutrient use (metabolism) by body
cells.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3e

 Heart

Blood
vessels

(f) Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.
The heart pumps blood.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3f

 Red bone
marrow
Thymus

Lymphatic
vessels
Thoracic
duct

Spleen

Lymph
nodes

(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris
in the lymphatic stream. Houses white
blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in
immunity. The immune response mounts
the attack against foreign substances
within the body.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3g

 Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx Bronchus
Trachea

Lung

(h) Respiratory System

Keeps blood constantly supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
The gaseous exchanges occur through
the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3h

 Oral cavity
Esophagus

Liver
Stomach
Small
intestine

Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus

(i) Digestive System

Breaks down food into absorbable
units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells. Indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3i
 Kidney
Ureter

Urinary
bladder
Urethra

(j) Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
body. Regulates water, electrolyte and
acid-base balance of the blood.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3j
 Mammary
glands (in
breasts)

Prostate
gland

Ovary
Penis
Testis Ductus
deferens Uterine
Scrotum Uterus
tube
Vagina

(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System

Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female
reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus.
Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3k-l

 Organ Systems Interrelationships

• All cells depend on organ systems to meet

their survival needs
• Organ systems work cooperatively to perform
necessary life functions

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Digestive system Respiratory system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them Takes in oxygen and
down, and eliminates unabsorbed eliminates carbon dioxide
matter (feces)
Food O2 CO2

Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs

Blood
CO2
O2

Urinary
Heart system
Nutrients Eliminates
nitrogenous
wastes and
Interstitial fluid excess ions

Nutrients and wastes pass

between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid

Integumentary system
Feces Protects the body as a whole Urine
from the external environment

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2

 Necessary Life Functions

1. Maintaining boundaries between internal

and external environments
• Plasma membranes
• Skin
2. Movement (contractility)
• Of body parts (skeletal muscle)
• Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Necessary Life Functions

3. Responsiveness: The ability to sense and

respond to stimuli
• Withdrawal reflex
• Control of breathing rate
4. Digestion
• Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
• Absorption of simple molecules into blood

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Necessary Life Functions

5. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that

occur in body cells
• Catabolism and anabolism
6. Excretion: The removal of wastes from
metabolism and digestion
• Urea, carbon dioxide, feces

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Necessary Life Functions

7. Reproduction
• Cellular division for growth or repair
• Production of offspring
8. Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of
organism

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 Survival Needs

1. Nutrients
• Chemicals for energy and cell building
• Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
vitamins
2. Oxygen
• Essential for energy release (ATP
production)

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 Survival Needs

3. Water
• Most abundant chemical in the body
• Site of chemical reactions
4. Normal body temperature
• Affects rate of chemical reactions
5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure
• For adequate breathing and gas exchange in
the lungs

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 Homeostasis

• Maintenance of a relatively stable internal

environment despite continuous outside
changes
• A dynamic state of equilibrium

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 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

• Involve continuous monitoring and regulation

of many factors (variables)
• Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish
the communication via nerve impulses and
hormones

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 Components of a Control Mechanism
1. Receptor (sensor)
• Monitors the environment
• Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)
2. Control center
• Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
• Receives input from receptor
• Determines appropriate response
3. Effector
• Receives output from control center
• Provides the means to respond
• Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 4 Output:
3 Input: Information Information sent along
sent along afferent Control efferent pathway to
pathway to control Center effector.
center. Afferent Efferent
2 pathway pathway
Receptor Effector 5
Receptor
Response
detects
of effector
change. IMB feeds back
1 AL
AN to reduce
Stimulus CE the effect of
produces BALANCE stimulus
change in and returns
variable. variable to
homeostatic
IMB level.
AL
AN
CE

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4

 IMB
1 AL
AN
Stimulus CE
produces BALANCE
change in
variable.
IMB
AL
AN
CE

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 1

 2
Receptor
Receptor
detects
change. IMB
1 AL
AN
Stimulus CE
produces BALANCE
change in
variable.
IMB
AL
AN
CE

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 2

 3 Input: Information
sent along afferent Control
pathway to control Center
center. Afferent
2 pathway
Receptor
Receptor
detects
change. IMB
1 AL
AN
Stimulus CE
produces BALANCE
change in
variable.
IMB
AL
AN
CE

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 3

 4 Output:
3 Input: Information Information sent along
sent along afferent Control efferent pathway to
pathway to control Center effector.
center. Afferent Efferent
2 pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
Receptor
detects
change. IMB
1 AL
AN
Stimulus CE
produces BALANCE
change in
variable.
IMB
AL
AN
CE

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 4

 4 Output:
3 Input: Information Information sent along
sent along afferent Control efferent pathway to
pathway to control Center effector.
center. Afferent Efferent
2 pathway pathway
Receptor Effector 5
Receptor
Response
detects
of effector
change. IMB feeds back
1 AL
AN to reduce
Stimulus CE the effect of
produces BALANCE stimulus
change in and returns
variable. variable to
homeostatic
IMB level.
AL
AN
CE

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.4, step 5

 Negative Feedback

• The response reduces or shuts off the original

stimulus
• Examples:
• Regulation of body temperature (a nervous
mechanism)
• Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an
endocrine mechanism)

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 Control Center
Information sent (thermoregulatory Information sent
along the afferent center in brain) along the efferent
pathway to control pathway to
center Afferent Efferent effectors
pathway pathway

Receptors
Temperature-sensitive Effectors
cells in skin and brain Sweat glands

Sweat glands activated

Response
Evaporation of sweat
Stimulus Body temperature falls;
Body temperature stimulus ends
rises BALANCE

Stimulus
Response
Body temperature falls
Body temperature rises;
stimulus ends

Receptors
Effectors
Temperature-sensitive
Skeletal muscles
cells in skin and brain

Efferent Afferent
Shivering pathway pathway
begins Information sent Information sent
along the efferent along the afferent
pathway to effectors Control Center pathway to control
(thermoregulatory center
center in brain)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.5

 Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood
Volume by ADH
• Receptors sense decreased blood volume
• Control center in hypothalamus stimulates
pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)
• ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return
more water to the blood

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Positive Feedback

• The response enhances or exaggerates the

original stimulus
• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
• Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:
• Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
(Chapter 28)
• Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

3 Released 2 Platelets
chemicals Positive adhere to site
attract more feedback and release
platelets. loop chemicals.

Feedback cycle ends

when plug is formed.

4 Platelet plug
forms.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.6

 1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.6, step 1

 1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

2 Platelets
adhere to site
and release
chemicals.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.6, step 2

 1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

3 Released 2 Platelets
chemicals Positive adhere to site
attract more feedback and release
platelets. loop chemicals.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.6, step 3

 1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

3 Released 2 Platelets
chemicals Positive adhere to site
attract more feedback and release
platelets. loop chemicals.

Feedback cycle ends

when plug is formed.

4 Platelet plug
forms.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.6, step 4

 Homeostatic Imbalance

• Disturbance of homeostasis
• Increases risk of disease
• Contributes to changes associated with aging
• May allow destructive positive feedback
mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.