Introduction to Music

Presenter: Krithika Ganesan

Faculty: Dr Abhishek B P
“The Human Voice is the most beautiful
instrument of all, but it is the
most difficult to
play”
—Richard Strauss
Contents
• Introduction
• Speaking vs Singing
• Some Definitions
• Western Music
• Indian Music—history, types, features
Introduction
• At least as old in humanity as modern civilisation
• Alarm signals, mating, worship, art, story-telling…
• Singing—perhaps oldest among all musical forms
• “Men sang out their feelings long before they were able to
speak their thoughts...what we mean is merely that our
comparatively monotonous spoken language and our highly
developed vocal music are differentiations of primitive
utterances…utterances were, at first…exclamative, not
communicative…Our remote ancestors had not the slightest
notion that such a thing as communicating ideas and feelings to
someone else was possible.”
• --Otto Jespersen, Language, Its Nature, Development and
Origin (1922)
Singers…
• Have more control over their breath flow in order to sustain long
musical phrases and add dynamics to the phrases being sung.
• Have more periodicity in the vocal signal.
• Utilise more of the frequency range capable of being produced
by the laryngeal system than speakers—up to two and a half
octaves as opposed to only one and a half octaves.
• adhere to specific scales in singing, a concept that is absent in
oration (Durga, 2007).
Some terms

Melody Rhythm Tone Tonality

Harmony Scale Octave Intonation

Tuning Consonance Dissonance Temperament

Melody
• A succession of musical notes that sound pleasing to the ear
Rhythm
• The element of music pertaining to time, played as a grouping
of notes into accented and unaccented beats.
Tone
• The intonation, pitch, and modulation of a composition
expressing the meaning, feeling, or attitude of the music
Tonality
• The tonal characteristics determined by the relationship of the
notes to the tone
Harmony
• Pleasing combination of two or three tones played together in
the background while a melody is being played
Scale
• Successive notes of a key or mode either ascending or
descending.
Octave
• The interval between two musical notes, the upper one of which
has twice the frequency of the lower one.
Intonation
• The manner in which tones are produced with regard to pitch.
• Refers to pitch accuracy - that is, whether a tone is played 'in
tune' or not
Tuning
• The adjustment of one sound source, such as a voice or string,
to produce a desired pitch in relation to a given pitch, and the
modification of that tuning to lessen dissonance.
Consonance and Dissonance
• Two concepts fundamental to the theory of tuning are those of
frequency ratio and of consonance and dissonance.
• A given musical pitch is determined by the frequency of vibration of
the sound wave that produces it, as a′ = 440 cycles per second.
• An interval, or distance between two pitches, can thus be
mathematically described as the ratio of the frequency of the first
pitch to the frequency of the second.
• Various frequency ratios can be reduced to the same basic
relationship; for example, 440:220 and 30:15 and 750:375 can all
be reduced to the ratio 2:1.
• When two tones are sounded together the subjective reaction
may be anything from one of perfect consonance to one of
extreme dissonance.
• Dissonance is produced by beats (interference between
pulsations of sound waves), and it is found that maximum
dissonance occurs when the rate of beats between the two
tones is about 33 per second.
• Consonance results from the absence of beats, which occurs only
when the ratio between the frequencies of the two tones is
numerically simple.
• When the two tones are tuned to the same pitch, they are said to be
in unison (ratio 1:1) and their consonance is absolute.
• Next in order of consonance comes the octave (2:1), the interval
between c and c′ (encompassing eight notes of the piano keyboard)
• Another highly consonant interval is the fifth (3:2, as from c to g).
• When a unison, octave, or fifth is slightly mistuned, the resulting
combination is markedly dissonant and is judged “out of tune.”
Temperament
• In musical tuning, a temperament is a system of tuning which
slightly compromises the pure intervals of just intonation in
order to meet other requirements of the system.
• In just intonation, every interval between two pitches
corresponds to a whole number ratio between their frequencies.
Such just intervals have a stability, or purity to their sound.
• If one of those pitches is adjusted slightly, that stability
decreases, and slow changes in the timbre of the interval's
sound begin to appear—an effect known as beating.
• As the adjustment becomes more severe, the beating becomes
faster. To intentionally choose an interval with beating as a
substitute for a just interval is the act of tempering that interval.
• These adjustments can make different musical possibilities
available to the musician that would be impractical in just
intonation. The actual measure of these adjustments are usually
called commas.
 Equal
Difference
Note Just Scale Temperament
C4 261.63 261.63 0
C4# 272.54 277.18 +4.64
D4 294.33 293.66 -0.67
E4b 313.96 311.13 -2.84
E4 327.03 329.63 +2.60
F4 348.83 349.23 +0.40
F4# 367.92 369.99 +2.07
G4 392.44 392.00 -0.44
A4b 418.60 415.30 -3.30
A4 436.05 440.00 +3.94
B4b 470.93 466.16 -4.77
B4 490.55 493.88 +3.33
C5 523.25 523.25 0
Definitions in western music
Bar/Measure
• A specific number of musical sounds that are organized within a measure, and that are contained within two solid lines called bar
lines.

Chord
• When two or more notes or pitches are sounded simultaneously a chord is created.

Crescendo (Italian)
• Meaning growing, as in a swelling of sound, or becoming louder.

Decrescendo/Diminuendo (Italian)
• Getting softer; the opposite of crescendo.

Forte (Italian)
• Loud or strong

Fortissimo (Italian)
• Louder than forte.
Half-step

• A musical interval (as E-F or B-C) equivalent to 1⁄12 of an octave.

Harmony

• The simultaneous combination of pitches, especially when blended into chords that are pleasing to the ear. 

Octave

• The interval between two musical notes, the upper one of which has twice the frequency of the lower one. In a major or minor
scale, the distance of this interval lies eight steps* away, hence the term “octave.”  (*in the major or minor scales, the eight steps
are actually a combination of “whole steps” and “half-steps”) 

Piano (Italian)

• Gently, soft.

Pianissimo (Italian)

• Softer than piano.

Scale

• An ordered succession of adjacent pitches, arranged in a sequence of whole steps and half steps, for example the major or
minor scales. A specific scale is defined by its characteristic interval pattern and by its most prominent pitch, known as its tonic.

Tempo (Italian)

• The rate of speed of a musical work.

Voice Register Classification in Western
Classical Singing
• The three male voice types are:
• Bass
• Baritone
• Tenor
• The three female voice types are: 
• Alto
• Mezzo-Soprano
• Soprano
 Click icon to add picture
Bass
Lowest singing range and typically lies
between E2 to E4.

In the lower and upper extremes of the

bass voice, some basses can sing from
C2 to G4
 Click icon to add picture
Baritone
Second lowest singing range, and
overlaps both Bass and Tenor.

Typical baritone range is from A2 to A4,

and might extend down to F2 or up to C5.

The baritone voice type is the most

common type of male voice.
 Click icon to add picture
Tenor
Highest type of male voice, typically
comfortable between C3 to C5.

Tenors generally have greater control

over their falsetto (head voice), allowing
them to reach notes well into the female
register.

Those who can sing higher than the

average tenor are often given the title
“countertenor.”
 Click icon to add picture
Alto
Lowest type of female voice.

Typical alto range lies between F3 to F5,

though there are those who can sing
above or below this range.

Those who can sing below are often

called “contralto’s” and can usually sing
in a range similar to a tenor.

Though altos have a very similar range to

mezzo-sopranos, their voices are usually
richer and fuller in the lower register than
mezzos
 Click icon to add picture
Mezzo-soprano
Middle-range voice type for females,
overlapping both the alto and soprano
ranges.

Typical range of this voice is between A3

and A5.
 Click icon to add picture
Soprano
Highest singing voice. The typical
soprano voice lies between C4 and C6.
Western and Indian Music

Homophony
Polyphony
History of Indian Music
• Earliest form of vocal music may have evolved from the primitive vocalisations of
humans, later—folk music.
• Folk music easy for group singing may have been further developed into chants used
in religious practices.
• Indian Classical Music was given a formal structure as early as 3000-5000 B.C
—”Vedic Period”
• Rig Veda, Atharva Veda, Yajur Veda, and Sama Veda—specifically Sama Veda
contains bases for all musical treatises.
• Indian music bifurcated after 13th century.
• West Asian people invaded the north, bringing the Islamic faith and culture with them.
• During Muslim rule, music was highly patronised by royalty, flourished in the northern
part of India.
• Western Asian form of music known as ‘maquam’ also assimilated into
North Indian Musical tradition—gave rise to primarily melodic style of
music—”Hindustani”.
• Southern regions hemmed in by the mountain ranges Vindhya and
Satpuda
• Thus South Indian ”Carnatic” music remained similar to Vedic origins
• Earlier forms of Hindustani music used more for devotion, while newer
style used for poetry, praising kings and nature, etc
• South Indian music continued to be majorly devotional
• However, because of unified origins, parallels exist even today.
Hindustani music
• Further evolved to include family based traditions of “gharanas”
• Each had own signature compositions, singing style, singers
• Common gharanas are
• Gwalior (oldest)
• Jaipur
• Kirana
• Agra
• Patiala
Carnatic Music
• 16th-17th centuries—Flourished in Vijayanagar Empire
• Purandara Dasa, father (Pitamaha) of Carnatic Music, formulated the system
that is commonly used for teaching
• Patronized by the local kings of the Kingdom of Mysore and Kingdom of
Travancore in the 18th through 20th centuries.
• Some royalty of the kingdoms of Mysore and Travancore were themselves noted
composers and proficient in playing musical instruments,
• Some famous court-musicians proficient in music were Veene Sheshanna
(1852–1926)[17] and Veene Subbanna (1861–1939), among others.
• In 1947—radical shift in patronage into an art of the masses with ticketed
performances organized by private institutions called sabhās.
• During 19th century, city of Madras emerged as locus for Carnatic music.
Definitions in Indian Music
• Śruti
• approximate equivalent of a tonic (or less precisely a key) in Western
music
• note from which all the others are derived
• also used in the sense of graded pitches in an octave.
• while there are an infinite number of sounds falling within a scale (or
raga) in classical music, the number that can be distinguished by
auditory perception is twenty-two
• In this sense, while shruti is determined by auditory perception, it is also
an expression in the listener's mind
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQjWyBvLfqM
• Swara
• a single note, which defines the relative higher or lower position of a
note, rather than a particular frequency.
• also refer to the solfege of classical music, which consist of seven
notes, "sa-ri-ga-ma-pa-da-ni“
• Unlike other music systems, every member of the solfege (called a
swara) has three variants.
• The exceptions are the drone notes, shadja and panchama (also
known as the tonic and the dominant), which have only one form; and
madhyama (the subdominant), which has two forms.
• In one scale, or ragam, there is usually only one variant of each note
present
• Raga System
• A raga in Carnatic music prescribes a set of rules for building a melody
• specifies rules for:
• movements up (aarohanam) and down (avarohanam),
• the scale of which notes should figure more and which notes should be used more sparingly,
• which notes may be sung with gamaka (a shake or oscillation of a note),
• which phrases should be used, phrases should be avoided, and so on.
• In Carnatic music, the sampoorna ragas (those with all seven notes in their scales) are
classified into a system called the melakarta, which groups them according to the kinds of
notes that they have.
• There are seventy-two melakarta ragas.
• Ragas may be divided into two classes: Janaka ragas (that is, melakarta or parent ragas)
and janyaragas (descendant ragas of a particular janaka raga).
• There are potentially hundreds and thousands of ragas, of which with over five thousand
have been used.
• In Hindustani music, a similar concept of ‘parent’ ragas exists in terms of ‘thaats’, but there
are only 10 thaats and there may be different versions of the same note in each thaat.
• Tala System
• beat set for a particular composition (a measure of time)
• cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song.
• specific components, which can be put together in over 108
combinations, allowing different compositions to have different rhythms
• singers usually keep the beat by moving their hands up and down in
specified patterns, and using their fingers simultaneously to keep time.
• Tala is formed with three basic parts (called angas) which are laghu,
dhrtam, and anudhrtam,
• Hindustani music also has the concept of taal, but there is generally
believed to be less strict observance to taal in Hindustani music.
• Sthayi
• Sthayis refer to octaves in Indian Classical music.
• A singer generally traverses across three octaves:
• a mid-octave (Madhya sthayi)
• the adjacent lower octave (mandhra sthayi)
• the adjacent higher octave (thaara sthayi).
• Instruments can usually be played through more octaves (e.g. athi
mandhra and athi thaara sthayis) as well.
• Gamak/gamaka
• This is the ornamentation used when singing indian music.
• Unlike western music, notes are never plain.
• They are either repeated, or the singer glides between notes, or
vibrates or ‘shakes’ a note.
• Gamakas manifest differently in Hindustani and Carnatic music—said
to be quicker in Carnatic music than Hindustani.
• Bhava
• ‘Emotion’.
• Often categorised into nine prevailing moods a song can occur in,
called the nine rasas:
• Adhbutha Rasa (surprise)
• Shringara Rasa (love)
• Roudra Rasa (anger)
• Bhayanaka Rasa (fear)
• Karuna Rasa (compassion)
• Bhibhatsya Rasa (disgust)
• Veera Rasa (courage)
• Hasya Rasa (humour)
• Shantha Rasa (peace)
Consonance and Dissonance in Indian Music
• Vadi:
• Sonant note is the note of primary importance.
• In most cases it is also the note most frequently struck.
• Helps in evoking the Rasa to its fullest, acting like a beacon to show the path. It is also called the life note.
• A Vadi note is often addressed as the king.
• Samvadi:
• Subsonant note.
• Second most important note of a Raga and is the second most frequently struck note in its melodic expansion.
• In most cases the Vadi and Samvadi notes are a fourth or fifth apart. It is often addressed as a ‘minister’.
• Anuvadi:
• Assonant note.
• The notes in a Raga that are neither Vadi or Samvadi are called its Anuvadi notes.
• They are often addressed as companion or attendant notes.
• Vivadi:
• Dissonant note. It is a note which should not be used in a Raga.
• As an exception however, it is used by skillful musicians in an implied form in order to enhance the beauty of the Raga.
• Vivadi notes are often addressed as enemy notes.
Improvisation
Carnatic (Manodharma) Hindustani (Vistar)
• Raga Alapana • Aalaap
• Niraval • Bol-Aalaap
• Kalpanaswaram • Taan
• Thanam • Bol-Taan
• Ragam Thanam Pallavi • Surgam
References
• Durga, S. A. K. (2007). Voice Culture: The Art of Voice Cultivation. Delhi: B. R. Rhythms.
• Glossary of musical terms. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/music/music-basics2/notes-rhythm/a/glossary-of-musical-terms
• Garcia, M. (1874). Part I. In Garcia’s New Treatise on the Art of Singing: A Compendious Method of Instruction,
with Examples And Exercises for the Cultivation of the Voice, (Revised, pp. 1–12). Boston: Oliver Ditson
Company.
• How To Determine Your Vocal Range. (2018, September 21). Retrieved from
https://www.musicnotes.com/now/tips/determine-vocal-range/
• Jespersen, O. (1922). Language: Its nature, development and origin. London: G. Allen & Unwin. Retrieved
February 2, 2019, from https://archive.org/.
• Mendes, A. P., Rothman, H. B., Sapienza, C., & Brown, W. S. (2003). Effects of Vocal Training on the Acoustic
Parameters of the Singing Voice, 17(4), 529–543. https://doi.org/10.1067/S0892-1997(03)00083-3
• Palsule, M. (2015). What is Western Classical Music? How is it different from Indian Classical Music?No Title.
Serenade Magazine. Retrieved from https://serenademagazine.com/series/music-education/what-is-western-
classical-music-how-is-it-different-from-indian-classical-music/
• Rangayyan, R. (2018). An introduction to the classical music of India. University of Calgary. Retrieved from
http://people.ucalgary.ca/~ranga/music.pdf
Thank You!