Full SQL Updated

Chapter 1
Overview of Database Concepts
Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 1

Chapter Objectives
• Identify the purpose of a database
management system (DBMS)
• Distinguish a field from a record and a
column from a row
• Define the three types of relationships that
can exist between entities

Chapter Objectives
• Identify the problem associated with many-
to-many relationships and the appropriate
solutions
• Explain the purpose of normalization
• Describe the role of a primary key
• Identify partial dependency and transitive
dependency in the normalization process
Chapter Objectives
• Explain the purpose of a foreign key
• Determine how to link data in different
tables through the use of a common field
• Explain the purpose of a structured query
language (SQL)

Database Terminology
• Database – logical structure to store
data
• Database Management System
(DBMS) – software used to create
and interact with the database

Database Components
• Character
• Field
• Record
• File

Database Components -
Character
• Basic unit of data
• Can be a letter, number, or special symbol

Database Components - Field
• A group of related characters
• Represents an attribute or characteristic of
an entity
• Corresponds to a column in the physical
database

Database Components - Record
• A collection of fields for one specific entity
• Corresponds to a row in the physical
database

Database Components - File
• A group of records about the same type of
entity

Components Example

Review of Database Design
• Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
• Normalization

Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC)
• Systems investigation – understanding the
problem
• Systems analysis – understanding the
solution
• Systems design – creating the logical and
physical components

Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC)
• Systems implementation – placing
completed system into operation
• Systems maintenance and review –
evaluating the implemented system

Relationships
• The following relationships can be
included in an E-R Model:
– One-to-one
– One-to-many
– Many-to-many

One-to-one Relationship
• Each occurrence of data in one entity is
represented by only one occurrence of data
in the other entity
• Example: Each individual has just one
Employee id and each Employee id is
assigned to just one person

One-to-many Relationship
• Each occurrence of data in one entity can be
represented by many occurrences of the
data in the other entity
• Example: Shashank ---- Employees

Many-to-many Relationship
• Data can have multiple occurrences in both
entities
• Example: A student can take many classes
and each class is composed of many
students
• Can not be included in the physical
database

Normalization
• Determines required tables and columns for
each table
• Multi-step process
• Used to reduce or control data redundancy

Unnormalized Data
Contains repeating Hotels in the Oct_hotel
table

First-Normal Form (1NF)
• Primary key is identified
• Repeating groups are eliminated

First-Normal Form (1NF)
Oct_hotel_id is the primary key for Oct_hotel (Not null and Unique).

Composite Primary Key
• More than one column is required to
uniquely identify a row
• Can lead to partial dependency - a column
is only dependent on a portion of the
primary key

Second-Normal Form (2NF)
• Partial dependency must be eliminated
– Break the composite primary key into
two parts, each part representing a
separate table

Second-Normal Form (2NF)
Oct_hotel table in 2NF

Third-Normal Form (3NF)
Partial and transitive dependency removed.

Summary of Normalization Steps
• 1NF: eliminate repeating groups, identify
primary key
• 2NF: table is in 1NF and partial
dependencies eliminated
• 3NF: table is in 2NF and transitive
dependencies eliminated

Linking Tables
• Once tables are normalized, make certain
tables are linked
• Tables are linked through a common field
• A common field is usually a primary key in
one table and a foreign key in the other
table

Structured Query Language
(SQL)
• Data sublanguage
• Used to:
– Create or modify tables
– Add data to tables
– Edit data in tables
– Retrieve data from tables

Chapter 2
Basic SQL SELECT Statements
» Select * from oct_hotel;
» Select * from dst_destination;
» Select * from Top_destination;

Chapter Objectives
• Distinguish between an RDBMS and an
ORDBMS
• Identify keywords, mandatory clauses, and
optional clauses in a SELECT statement
• Select and view all columns of a table
• Select and view one column of a table

Chapter Objectives
• Display multiple columns of a table
• Use a column alias to clarify the contents of
a particular column
• Perform basic arithmetic operations in the
SELECT clause

Chapter Objectives
• Remove duplicate lists, using either the
DISTINCT or UNIQUE keyword
• Combine fields, literals, and other data
• Format output

Relational Database Management
System (RDBMS)
An RDBMS is the software program used
to create the database and it allows you to
enter, manipulate, and retrieve data

Object Relational Database
Management System (ORDBMS)
Same as an RDBMS except it can be used
to reference objects such as maps and object
fields

SELECT Statement Syntax
• SELECT statements are used to retrieve
data from the database
• Syntax gives the basic structure, or rules,
for a command

Optional clauses and keywords are shown in
brackets

• SELECT and FROM clauses are required
• SELECT clause identifies column(s)
• FROM clause identifies table(s)
• Each clause begins with a keyword

Selecting All Data in a Table
Substitute an asterisk for the column names in a
SELECT clause
» Select * from oct_hotel;

Selecting Column from a Table
Enter column name in SELECT clause

Operations Within the SELECT
Statement
• Column alias can be used for column
headings
• Perform arithmetic operations
• Suppress duplicates
• Concatenate data

Column Alias
• List after column heading
• AS keyword is optional
• Enclose in double quotation marks:
– If it contains blank space(s)
– If it contains special symbol(s)
– To retain case

Column Alias Example

Arithmetic Operations
• Executed left to right
• Multiplication and division are solved first
• Addition and subtraction are solved last
• Override order with parentheses

Suppressing Duplicates
Enter DISTINCT or UNIQUE after
SELECT keyword
» Select distinct hotel_nme from
oct_hotel;

Concatenation
• Can combine data with string literal
• Use concatenation operator, ||
• Allows use of column alias

Concatenation Example

Chapter 3
Restricting Rows and Sorting
Data

Chapter Objectives
• Use a WHERE clause to restrict the rows
returned by a query
• Create a search condition using
mathematical comparison operators
• Use the BETWEEN…AND comparison
operator to identify records within a range
of values

Chapter Objectives
• Specify a list of values for a search
condition using the IN comparison operator
• Search for patterns using the LIKE
comparison operator
• Identify the purpose of the % and _
wildcard characters

Chapter Objectives
• Join multiple search conditions using the
appropriate logical operator
• Perform searches for null values
• Specify the order for the presentation of
query results, using ORDER BY, DESC,
ASC, and the SELECT clause

WHERE Clause
• Used to retrieve rows based on a stated
condition
• Requires:
– Column name
– Comparison operator
– Value or column for comparison
• Case sensitive

WHERE Clause Example
• List WHERE clause after FROM clause
• Enclose non-numeric data in single quotes

Comparison Operators
Indicates how the data should relate to the
given search value

Arithmetic Comparison
Operators

Other Comparison Operators

IN Operator
• Match a value in a specified list
• List must be in parentheses
• Values separated by commas

IN Operator Example

LIKE Operator
• Performs pattern searches
• Used with wildcard characters
– Underscore (_) for exactly one character in the
indicated position
– Percent sign (%) to represent any number of
characters

LIKE Operator Example

Logical Operators
• Used to combine conditions
• Evaluated in order of NOT, AND, OR
– NOT – reverses meaning
– AND – both conditions must be TRUE
– OR – at least one condition must be TRUE

AND Logical Operator Example

Resolving Multiple Types of
Operators
1. Arithmetic operators
2. Comparison operators
3. Logical operators

Treatment of NULL Values
• Absence of data
• Requires use of IS NULL operator

ORDER BY Clause
• Presents data in sorted order
• Ascending order is default
• Use DESC keyword to override column
default
• 255 columns maximum

Sort Sequence
• In ascending order, values will be listed in
the following sequence:
– Numeric values
– Character values
– NULL values
• In descending order, sequence is reversed

ORDER BY Example

Chapter 4
Joining Multiple Tables

Chapter Objectives
• Create a Cartesian join
• Create an equality join using the WHERE clause
• Create an equality join using the JOIN keyword
• Create a non-equality join using the WHERE
clause
• Create a non-equality join using the JOIN…ON
approach

Chapter Objectives
• Create a self-join
• Distinguish an inner join from an outer join
• Create an outer join using the WHERE clause
• Create an outer join using the OUTER keyword
• Use set operators to combine the results of
multiple queries
• Join three or more tables

Purpose of Joins
• Joins are used to link tables and reconstruct
data in a relational database
• Joins can be created through:
– Conditions in a WHERE clause
– Use of JOIN keywords in FROM clause

Cartesian Join
• Created by omitting joining condition in the
WHERE clause or through CROSS JOIN
keywords in the FROM clause
• Results in every possible row combination
(m * n)

Cartesian Join Example:
Omitted Condition
• select * from oct_hotel, dst_destination;
• select * from oct_hotel cross join
dst_destination;

Equality Join
• Links rows through equivalent data that
exists in both tables
• Created by:
– Creating equivalency condition in the WHERE
clause
– Using NATURAL JOIN, JOIN…USING, or
JOIN…ON keywords in the FROM clause

Equality Join: WHERE Clause
Example

Equality Join: NATURAL JOIN
Syntax: tablename NATURAL JOIN tablename

Equality Join: JOIN…USING
Syntax: tablename JOIN tablename USING (columnname)

Equality Join: JOIN…ON
Syntax: tablename JOIN tablename ON condition

JOIN Keyword Overview
• Use NATURAL JOIN when tables have one
column in common
• Use JOIN…USING when tables have more than
one column in common
• Use JOIN…ON when a condition is needed to
specify a relationship other than equivalency
• Using JOIN keyword frees the WHERE clause for
exclusive use in restricting rows

Non-Equality Joins
• In WHERE clause, use any comparison
operator other than equal sign
• In FROM clause, use JOIN…ON keywords
with non-equivalent condition

Self-Joins
• Used to link a table to itself
• Requires use of column qualifier

Self-Join: WHERE Clause
Example

Outer Joins
• Use to include rows that do not have a
match in the other table
• In WHERE clause, include outer join
operator (+) next to table with missing rows
to add NULL rows
• In FROM clause, use FULL, LEFT, or
RIGHT with OUTER JOIN keywords

Outer Join: WHERE Clause
Example

Outer Join: OUTER JOIN
Keyword Example
»select distinct(a.geoname_id),b.name from oct_hotel a
left outer join dst_destination b on
a.geoname_id=b.geoname_id;
right outer join dst_destination b on
full outer join dst_destination b on

Set Operators
Used to combine the results of two or more
SELECT statements

Set Operator Example
»select geoname_id from (select geoname_id from

dst_destination where rownum <11 order by geoname_id desc)
minus
select geoname_id from(selectOracle9i:
Chapter 1
geoname_id
SQL
from dst_destination 88
where rownum <10 order by geoname_id desc);
Joining Three or More Tables
• Same procedure as joining two tables
• Will always results in one less join than the
number of tables being joined

Joining Three or More Tables:
Example

Chapter 5
Selected Single-Row Functions

Chapter Objectives
• Use the UPPER, LOWER, and INITCAP
functions to change the case of field values
and character strings
• Extract a substring using the SUBSTR
function
• Determine the length of a character string
using the LENGTH function

Chapter Objectives
• Use the LPAD and RPAD functions to pad a
string to a desired width
• Use the LTRIM and RTRIM functions to remove
specific characters strings
• Round and truncate numeric data using the
ROUND and TRUNC functions
• Calculate the number of months between two
dates using the MONTHS_BETWEEN function

Chapter Objectives
• Identify and correct problems associated with
calculations involving null values using the NVL
function
• Display dates and numbers in a specific format
with the TO_CHAR function
• Determine the current date setting using the
SYSDATE keyword
• Nest functions inside other functions

Terminology
• Function – predefined block of code that
accepts arguments
• Single-row Function – returns one row of
results for each record processed
• Multiple-row Function – returns one result
per group of data processed

Types of Functions

Case Conversion Functions
Alter the case of data stored in a column or
character string

LOWER Function
Used to convert characters to lower-case
letters

UPPER Function
Used to convert characters to upper-case
letters

INITCAP Function
Used to convert characters to mixed-case

Character Manipulation
Functions
Manipulates data by extracting substrings,
counting number of characters, replacing
strings, etc.

SUBSTR Function
Used to return a substring, or portion of a string

LENGTH Function
Used to determine the number of characters in a
string

LPAD and RPAD Functions
Used to pad, or fill in, a character string to a fixed
width

LTRIM and RTRIM Functions
Used to remove a specific string of characters

REPLACE Function
Substitutes a string with another specified string

CONCAT Function
Used to concatenate two character strings

Number Functions
Allows for manipulation of numeric data

ROUND Function
Used to round numeric columns to a stated precision

TRUNC Function
Used to truncate a numeric value to a specific position

Date Functions
Used to perform date calculations or format
date values

MONTHS_BETWEEN Function
Determines the number of months between
two dates

ADD_MONTHS Function
Adds a specified number of months to a date

NEXT_DAY Function
Determines the next occurrence of a
specified day of the week after a given date

TO_DATE Function
Converts various date formats to the
internal format (DD-MON-YYYY) used by
Oracle9i

Format Model Elements - Dates

NVL Function
Substitutes a value for a NULL value

store_name Sales
Store A 300
Store B NULL
Store C 150
»SELECT SUM(NVL(Sales,100)) FROM Sales_Data;

NVL2 Function
Allows different actions based on whether a value
is NULL

TO_CHAR Function
Converts dates and numbers to a formatted

character string

Format Model Elements –
Time and Number

Other Functions
• NVL
• NVL2
• TO_CHAR
• DECODE
• SOUNDEX

DECODE Function
Determines action based upon values in a list

Nesting Functions
• One function is used as an argument inside
another function
• Must include all arguments for each function
• Inner function is resolved first, then outer function

Chapter 6
Group Functions

Chapter Objectives
• Differentiate between single-row and multiple-row
functions
• Use the SUM and AVG functions for numeric
calculations
• Use the COUNT function to return the number of
records containing non-NULL values
• Use COUNT(*) to include records containing
NULL values

Chapter Objectives
• Use the MIN and MAX functions with non-
numeric fields
• Determine when to use the GROUP BY
clause to group data
• Identify when the HAVING clause should be
used
• List the order of precedence for evaluating
WHERE, GROUP BY, and HAVING clauses

Chapter Objectives
• State the maximum depth for nesting group
functions
• Nest a group function inside a single-row
function
• Calculate the standard deviation and
variance of a set of data, using the
STDDEV and VARIANCE functions

Group Functions
• Return one result per group of rows
processed
• Also called multiple-row and aggregate
functions
• All group functions ignore NULL values
except COUNT(*)
• Use DISTINCT to suppress duplicate values

Group by Function
Calculates total amount stored in a numeric
column for a group of rows

GROUP BY Clause
• Used to group data
• Must be used for individual column in the
SELECT clause with a group function
• Cannot reference column alias

HAVING Clause
Having

Order of Clause Evaluation
When included in the same SELECT
statement, evaluated in order of:
– WHERE
– GROUP BY
– HAVING

Nesting Functions
• Inner function resolved first
• Maximum nesting depth: 2

Chapter 7
Subqueries

Chapter Objectives
• Determine when it is appropriate to use a subquery
• Identify which clauses can contain subqueries
• Distinguish between an outer query and a
subquery
• Use a single-row subquery in a WHERE clause
• Use a single-row subquery in a HAVING clause
• Use a single-row subquery in a SELECT clause

Chapter Objectives
• Distinguish between single-row and multiple-
row comparison operators
• Use a multiple-row subquery in a WHERE
clause
• Use a multiple-row subquery in a HAVING
clause
• Use a multiple-column subquery in a WHERE
clause

Chapter Objectives
• Create an inline view using a multiple-
column subquery in a FROM clause
• Compensate for NULL values in subqueries
• Distinguish between correlated and
uncorrelated subqueries
• Nest a subquery inside another subquery

Subquery
• Used when query is based on unknown
value
• A query nested inside another query
• Requires SELECT and FROM clauses
• Must be enclosed in parentheses
• Place on right side of comparison operator

Types of Subqueries

Single-Row Subquery Operators
• Can only return one result to outer query
• Operators include =, >, <, >=, <=, < >

Single-Row Subquery –
In WHERE Clause
Used for comparison against individual data

In HAVING Clause
Required when returned value is compared
to grouped data

In SELECT Clause
Replicates subquery value for each row displayed

Multiple-Row Subqueries
• Return more than one row of results
• Require use of IN, ANY, ALL, or EXISTS
operators

ANY and ALL Operators
Combine with arithmetic operators

EXISTS Operator
Determines whether condition exists in subquery

Multiple-Row Subquery –
In WHERE Clause

Multiple-Row Subquery –
In HAVING Clause

Multiple-Column Subquery
• Returns more than one column in results
• Can return more than one row
• Column list on left side of operator must be
in parentheses
• Uses IN operator for WHERE and
HAVING clauses

Multiple-Column Subquery –
In FROM Clause
Creates temporary table

Multiple-Column Subquery –
In WHERE Clause
Returns multiple columns for evaluation

NULL Values
When subquery might return NULL values, use NVL function

Uncorrelated Subqueries
• Processing sequence:
– Inner query executed first
– Result passed to outer query
– Outer query executed

Correlated Subqueries
• Inner query executed once for each row
processed by outer query
• Inner query references row contained in
outer query

Nested Subqueries
• Maximum 255 subqueries if nested in
WHERE clause
• No limit if nested in FROM clause
• Innermost subquery resolved first, then next
level, etc.

Nested Subquery Example
Innermost resolved first (3), then second level (2),
then outer query (1)

Chapter 8
Table Creation and Management

Chapter Objectives
• Create a new table using the CREATE
TABLE command
• Name a new column or table
• Use a subquery to create a new table
• Add a column to an existing table
• Modify the size of a column in an existing
table
Chapter Objectives
• Drop a column from an existing table
• Mark a column as unused, then delete it at a
later time
• Rename a table
• Truncate a table
• Drop a table

Database Table
• A database object
• Stores data for the database
• Consists of columns and rows
• Created and modified through Data
Definition Language (DDL) commands

Table and Column Names
• Maximum 30 characters - no blank spaces
• Must begin with a letter
• Can contain numbers, underscore (_), and
number sign (#)
• Must be unique
• No reserved words allowed

Common Datatypes

CREATE TABLE Command

• Column definition list must be enclosed in
parentheses
• Datatype must be specified for each column
• Maximum of 1,000 columns

Example

DESCRIBE Command
Displays structure of specified table

Table Creation Through
Subqueries
• Can use subquery to retrieve data from
existing table
• Requires use of AS keyword
• New column names can be assigned

CREATE TABLE…AS
Command

CREATE TABLE…AS
Command Example

Modifying Existing Tables
• Accomplished through ALTER TABLE
command
• Use ADD clause to add a column
• Use MODIFY clause to change a column
• Use DROP COLUMN to drop a column

ALTER TABLE Command
Syntax

ALTER TABLE…ADD
Command Example

ALTER TABLE…MODIFY
Command Example

Modification Guidelines
• Column must be as wide as the data it
already contains
• If a NUMBER column already contains
data, size cannot be decreased
• Adding or changing default data does not
affect existing data

ALTER TABLE…DROP
COLUMN Command
• Can only reference one column per
execution
• Deletion is permanent
• Cannot delete last remaining column in a
table

ALTER TABLE…SET
UNUSED Command
• Once marked for deletion, column cannot
be restored
• Storage space freed at later time

ALTER TABLE…DROP
UNUSED Command
Frees up storage space from columns
previously marked as unused

RENAME Command
Used to rename a table – old name no longer valid

Truncating a Table –
TRUNCATE Command
Rows are deleted - structure of table remains

DROP TABLE Command
Table structure and contents are deleted

Chapter 9
Constraints

Chapter Objectives
• Explain the purpose of constraints in a table
• Distinguish among PRIMARY KEY,
FOREIGN KEY, UNIQUE, CHECK, and
NOT NULL constraints and the appropriate
use for each constraint
• Distinguish between creating constraints at
the column level and table level

Chapter Objectives
• Create PRIMARY KEY constraints for a
single column and a composite primary key
• Create a FOREIGN KEY constraint
• Create a UNIQUE constraint
• Create a CHECK constraint

Chapter Objectives
• Create a NOT NULL constraint, using the
ALTER TABLE…MODIFY command
• Include constraints during table creation
• Use DISABLE and ENABLE commands
• Use the DROP command

Constraints
• Rules used to enforce business rules,
practices, and policies
• Rules used to ensure accuracy and integrity
of data

Constraint Types

Naming Constraints
• Use optional CONSTRAINT keyword
during creation to assign a name
• Let server name constraint using default
format SYS_Cn

Creating Constraints
• When:
– During table creation
– Modify existing table
• How:
– Column level approach
– Table level approach

General Syntax – Column Level
If a constraint is being created at the
column level, the constraint applies to the
column specified

General Syntax – Table Level
• Approach can be used to create any
constraint type except NOT NULL
• Required if constraint is based on multiple
columns

Enforcement
• All constraints are enforced at the table
level
• If a data value violates a constraint, the
entire row is rejected

Adding Constraints to Existing
Tables
• Added to existing table with ALTER
TABLE command
• Add NOT NULL constraint using MODIFY
clause
• All other constraints added using ADD
clause

PRIMARY KEY Constraint
• Ensures that columns do not contain
duplicate or NULL values
• Only one per table allowed

PRIMARY KEY Constraint for
Composite Key
List column names within parentheses
separated by commas

FOREIGN KEY Constraint
• Requires a value to exist in referenced
column of other table
• NULL values are allowed
• Enforces referential integrity
• Maps to the PRIMARY KEY in parent
table

FOREIGN KEY Constraint -
Example

Deletion of Foreign Key Values
• Cannot delete a value in parent table
referenced by a row in child table
• Use ON DELETE CASCADE keywords
when creating FOREIGN KEY constraint –
automatically deletes parent row when row
in child table is deleted

UNIQUE Constraint
• No duplicates allowed in referenced column
• NULL values are permitted

CHECK Constraint
Updates and additions must meet specified
condition

NOT NULL Constraint
• Special CHECK constraint with IS NOT
NULL condition
• Can only be created at column level
• Included in output of DESCRIBE command
• Can only be added to existing table using
ALTER TABLE…MODIFY command

NOT NULL Constraint Example

Adding Constraints During Table
Creation – Column Level
Include in column definition

Adding Constraints During Table
Creation – Table Level
Include at end of column list

Viewing Constraints –
USER_CONSTRAINTS
Can display name, type, and condition of
CHECK constraints

Disabling/Enabling Constraints
Use DISABLE or ENABLE clause of
ALTER TABLE command

Dropping a Constraint
• Constraints cannot be modified, must be
dropped and recreated
• Actual syntax depends on type of constraint
– PRIMARY KEY - just list type of constraint
– UNIQUE - include column name
– All others - reference constraint name

ALTER TABLE…DROP Syntax

Chapter 10
Data Manipulation

Chapter Objectives
• Add a record to an existing table
• Add a record containing a NULL value to
an existing table
• Use a subquery to copy records from an
existing table
• Modify the existing rows within a table

Chapter Objectives
• Use substitution variables with an UPDATE
command
• Issue the transaction control statements
COMMIT and ROLLBACK
• Differentiate between DDL, DML, and
transaction control commands

Chapter Objectives
• Delete records
• Differentiate between a shared lock and an
exclusive lock
• Use the SELECT…FOR UPDATE
command to create a shared lock

INSERT Command
• Used to add rows to existing tables
• Identify table in the INSERT INTO clause
• Specify data in the VALUES clause
• Can only add one row at a time to a table

INSERT Command Syntax
• Enclose non-numeric data in single quotes
• If column list not provided, a value must be
assigned to each column in the table

INSERT Command Example

Inserting NULL Value
• Omit column name from INSERT INTO
clause column list
• Substitute two single quotation marks
• Use NULL keyword

Inserting Data from an Existing
Table
Substitute subquery for VALUES clause

Modifying Existing Rows
• Modify rows using UPDATE command
• Use UPDATE command to:
– Add values to an existing row
– Change existing values

UPDATE Command
• UPDATE clause identifies table
• SET clause identifies column being
changed and new value
• Optional WHERE clause specifies row(s) to
be changed – if omitted, will update all
rows

UPDATE Command Syntax

UPDATE Command Example

Substitution Variables
• Prompts user for value
• Identified by ampersand (&) preceding
variable name
• Can be used to create interactive scripts

Substitution Variable Example

Transaction Control
• Results of Data Manipulation Language
(DML) are not permanently updated to
table until explicit or implicit COMMIT
occurs
• Transaction control statements can:
– Commit data through COMMIT command
– Undo data changes through ROLLBACK
command
COMMIT
• Explicit COMMIT occurs by executing
COMMIT;
• Implicit COMMIT occurs when DDL
command is executed or user properly exits
system
• Permanently updates table(s) and allows
other users to view changes

ROLLBACK
• Used to “undo” changes that have not been
committed
• Occurs when:
– ROLLBACK; is executed
– System restarts after crash

Deleting Rows
DELETE command removes a row from a table

DELETE Command – Omitting
WHERE Clause
Omitting WHERE clause removes all rows

Table Locks
• Prevents users from changing same data or
objects
• Two types:
– Shared – prevents DML operations on portion
of table
– Exclusive – locks table preventing other
exclusive or shared locks

Shared Lock
• Locks portion of table affected by DML
operation
• Implicitly occurs during UPDATE or
DELETE operations
• Explicitly occurs through LOCK TABLE
command with SHARE MODE option
• Released when COMMIT (implicit or
explicit) or ROLLBACK occurs
Exclusive Lock
• Implicitly locks table for DDL operations -
CREATE or ALTER TABLE
• Explicitly locked through LOCK TABLE
command with EXCLUSIVE MODE option
• Released after execution of DDL operation
or after user exits system

SELECT…FOR UPDATE
Command
• Creates shared lock on retrieved portion of
table
• Prevents one user from changing a row
while another user is selecting rows to be
changed
• Released through implicit or explicit
commit

SELECT…FOR UPDATE
Command – Example

Chapter 11
Views

Chapter Objectives
• Create a view, using CREATE VIEW
command or the CREATE OR REPLACE
VIEW command
• Employ the FORCE and NO FORCE
options
• State the purpose of the WITH CHECK
OPTION constraint

Chapter Objectives
• Explain the effect of the WITH READ
ONLY option
• Update a record in a simple view
• Re-create a view
• Explain the implication of an expression in
a view for DML operations
• Update a record in a complex view
Chapter Objectives
• Identify problems associated with adding
records to a complex view
• Identify the key-preserved table underlying
a complex view
• Drop a view
• Explain inline views and the use of
ROWNUM to perform a “TOP-N” analysis
Views
• Permanent objects that store no data
• Display data contained in other tables
• Two purposes:
– Reduce complex query requirements for novice
users
– Restrict users’ access to sensitive data

Types of Views

CREATE VIEW Command
• Use OR REPLACE if view already exists
• Use FORCE if underlying table does not
exist at time of creation
• Provide new column names if necessary

CREATE VIEW Options
• WITH CHECK OPTION constraint – if
used, prevents data changes that will make
the data subsequently inaccessible to the
view
• WITH READ ONLY – prevents DML
operations

Simple View
Only references one table – no group
functions, GROUP BY clause, or
expressions

Simple View – DML Operations
• Any DML operations are allowed through
simple views unless created with WITH
READ ONLY option
• DML operations that violate constraints on
the underlying table are not allowed

Complex View
• May contain data from multiple tables or
data created with the GROUP BY clause,
functions, or expressions
• Type of DML operations allowed depends
on various factors

DML Operations - Complex
Views with Expressions
Values cannot be inserted into columns that
are based on arithmetic expressions

DML Operations – Complex
Views from Multiple Tables
DML operations can not be performed on
non key-preserved tables, but they are
permitted on key-preserved tables

DML Operations – Other
Complex Views
No DML operations are permitted on
complex views based on DISTINCT,
ROWNUM, GROUP BY, or a function

Dropping a View
Use DROP VIEW command

Inline View
• Temporary table created by using subquery
in FROM clause
• Can only be referenced while the command
is being executed
• Most common usage – “TOP-N” Analysis

“TOP-N” Analysis
• ORDER BY included to identify top values:
– descending for highest values, ascending for lowest values
• Extract data based on ROWNUM

Chapter 12
Additional Database Objects

Chapter Objectives
• Define the purpose of a sequence and state
how it can be used by an organization
• Explain why gaps may appear in the
integers generated by a sequence
• Correctly use the CREATE SEQUENCE
command to create a sequence

Chapter Objectives
• Identify which options cannot be changed
by the ALTER SEQUENCE command
• Use NEXTVAL and CURRVAL in an
INSERT command
• Explain when Oracle9i will automatically
create an index
• Create an index, using the CREATE
INDEX command
Chapter Objectives
• Delete an index, using the DELETE
INDEX command
• Create a PUBLIC synonym
• Delete a PUBLIC synonym
• Identify the contents of different versions of
views used to access the data dictionary,
based on the prefix of the view
Database Objects
• Anything that has a name and defined
structure
• Includes:
– Sequence – generate sequential integers
– Index – quickly locate specific records
– Synonym – alias for other database objects

Sequences
• Used for internal control purposes by
providing sequential integers for auditing
• Used to generate unique value for primary
key column – no correlation with actual row
contents

CREATE SEQUENCE
Command
• Various intervals allowed – Default: 1
• Can specify starting number – Default: 1

CREATE SEQUENCE
Command
• Can specify MINVALUE for decreasing
sequence, MAXVALUE for increasing
• Numbers can be reused if CYCLE specified
• ORDER clause for application cluster
environment
• Use CACHE to pre-generate integers –
Default: 20
CREATE SEQUENCE
Command Example

Verifying Sequence Values
Query USER_SEQUENCES data
dictionary view

Using Sequence Values
• NEXTVAL – generates integer
• CURRVAL – contains last integer
generated by NEXTVAL

Altering Sequence Definitions
• Use ALTER SEQUENCE command
• START WITH value cannot be altered –
drop sequence and re-create
• Changes cannot make current integers
invalid

ALTER SEQUENCE Command
Example

DROP SEQUENCE Command
Previous values generated are not affected
by removing a sequence from a database

Indexes
• Stores frequently referenced value and row
ID (ROWID)
• Can be based on one column, multiple
columns, functions, or expressions

Creating an Index
• Implicitly created by PRIMARY KEY and
UNIQUE constraints
• Explicitly created by CREATE INDEX
command

CREATE INDEX Command
Example

Verifying an Index
Indexes listed in USER_INDEXES view

Removing an Index
Use DROP INDEX command

Synonyms
• Serve as permanent aliases for database
objects
• Can be private or public
– Private synonyms are only available to user
who created them
– PUBLIC synonyms are available to all database
users

CREATE SYNONYM
Command Syntax

CREATE SYNONYM
Command Example

Deleting a SYNONYM
• A private synonym can be deleted by owner
• A PUBLIC synonym can only be deleted by
a user with DBA privileges

Data Dictionary
• Stores information about database objects
• Owned by user SYS
• Cannot be directly accessed by users
• Displays contents through data dictionary
views

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Chapter 1

Overview of Database Concepts

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 1

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 2

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 4

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 5

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 6

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 7

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 8

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 9

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 10

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 11

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 12

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 13

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 14

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 15

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 16

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 17

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 18

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 19

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 20

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 21

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 22

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 23

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 24

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 25

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 26

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 27

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 28

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 30

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 31

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 32

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 33

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 34

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 35

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 36

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 37

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 38

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 39

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 40

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 41

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 42

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 43

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 44

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 45

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 46

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 47

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 48

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 49

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 50

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 51

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Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 56

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 57

Chapter 1 Oracle9i: SQL 58