Lipids

2
3
• There are three classes of lipids: triglycerides
(fats and oils), which account for 98% of the
fat in food; phospholipids (e.g., lecithin); and
sterols (e.g., cholesterol).

4
 TRIGLYCERIDES
• Structurally, triglycerides are composed of a
three-carbon atom glycerol backbone with
three fatty acids attached.

5
Fatty Acids:
• Fatty acids are basically chains of carbon
atoms with hydrogen atoms attached. At one
end of the chain is a methyl group (CH3), and
at the other end is an acid group (COOH).

6
7
8
• Almost all naturally occurring fatty acids have an even
number of carbon atoms in their chain, generally
between 4 and 24.
• Long-chain fatty acids (containing 12 or more carbon
atoms), predominate in meats, fish, and vegetable oils,
are the most common length fatty acid in the diet.
• Smaller amounts of medium-chain (6–10 carbon
atoms) and short-chain (2–4 carbon atoms) fatty acids
are found primarily in dairy products.
• The body absorbs short- and medium-chain fatty acids
differently than long-chain fatty acids.

9
• The majority of naturally occurring saturated fatty acids
are straight-line molecules that can pack tightly
together; thus, they are solid at room temperature.
• An “unsaturated” fatty acid does not have all the
hydrogen atoms it can potentially hold; therefore, one
(monounsaturated) or more (polyunsaturated) double
bonds form between carbon atoms in the chain.
• They are liquid at room temperature and are referred to
as “oils.”

10
• All food fats contain a mixture of saturated,
monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty
acids.

11
12
• Saturated Fats. Fats with a high percentage of saturated
fatty acids are referred to as solid fats because they are
solid at room temperature.
• Saturated fatty acids occur to the greatest extent in
animal fats—the fat in meats, whole-milk dairy
products, and egg yolks.
• The only vegetable fats that are saturated are palm oil,
palm kernel oil, and coconut oil.
• Saturated fat is commonly known as a “bad” fat.
• A high intake of most saturated fatty acids is linked with
high total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol, which are risk factors for cardiovascular
disease
13
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
• “Good fats” because they are linked to lower
blood cholesterol levels and thus a reduced
risk of cardiovascular disease.
• Monounsaturated fatty acids are the
predominate fat in olives, olive oil, canola oil,
avocado, peanut oil, and most other nuts.
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids are less ubiquitous
than monounsaturated fats. They are the
predominate fat in corn, soybean, safflower,
and cottonseed oils and also in fish.
14
• Unsaturated fatty acids can be classified
according to the location of their double bonds
along the carbon chain.
• A polyunsaturated fatty acid with its first
double-bond three carbons from the methyl
end is an omega-3 or n-3 fatty acid.
• Likewise, an omega-6 or n-6 polyunsaturated
fatty acid has its first double-bond 6 carbons
from the methyl end.
• Omega-9 or n-9 fatty acids are
monounsaturated fats.
15
• n-6 fatty acid (linoleic acid) and one n-3 fatty acid
(alpha-linolenic acid) are considered essential fatty
acids and must be consumed in the diet.
• Linoleic acid, the essential n-6 fatty acid, is especially
abundant in plant oils, such as safflower, sunflower,
corn, and soybean oils; poultry fat, nuts, and seeds are
also sources.
• The body can make other n-6 fatty acids from linoleic
acid, such as arachidonic acid. However, if a deficiency
of linoleic acid develops, arachidonic acid becomes
“conditionally essential” because the body is unable to
synthesize it without a supply of linoleic acid.

16
• Alpha-linolenic acid, the essential n-3 fatty acid, is
found in flaxseed, canola, soybean, and walnut oils
and in nuts, especially walnuts.
• To a very limited extent, humans can convert alpha-
linolenic acid to the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). These
two n-3 fatty acids are commonly referred to as
“fish oils” because they are primarily found in fatty
fish, especially salmon, anchovy, sardines, herring,
lake trout, and mackerel.
• Cardioprotective benefits of n-3 fatty acids are
attributed to EPA and DHA.

17
• Stability of Fats. Although all fats can become oxidized
when exposed to light and oxygen over time, the greater
the number of double bonds, the greater is the
susceptibility to rancidity.
• Therefore, polyunsaturated fats are most susceptible to
rancidity, saturated fats are least susceptible, and
monounsaturated fats are somewhere in between.
• To help extend the shelf life of foods, manufacturers
may add antioxidants, such as butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), to
polyunsaturated fat–rich foods and oils.
• Another commercial method to make oils more stable is
hydrogenation.

18
• Hydrogenation is a process that adds hydrogen
atoms to polyunsaturated oils to saturate some of
the double bonds so that the resulting product is
less susceptible to rancidity and has improved
function.
• Partial hydrogenation results in a more solid
(more saturated) product, such as stick margarine
and shortening, yet still maintains some
unsaturated (double) bonds.
• Fully hydrogenated products are virtually
completely saturated and do not contain trans
fats.
19
• The process of hydrogenation changes the
placement of the hydrogen atoms around the
remaining double bonds from the natural cis
position to the rare trans position.
• Only small amounts of trans fats occur
naturally in some animal foods, such as beef,
lamb, and dairy products.
• Mounting evidence revealed that trans fats,
like saturated fat, raise LDL cholesterol.

20
21
 FUNCTIONS OF FAT IN THE BODY
• The primary function of fat is to fuel the body. At rest,
fat provides about 60% of the body’s calorie needs.
• All fat provides 9 kcal/g.
• Fat deposits insulate and cushion internal organs to
protect them from mechanical injury.
• Fat under the skin helps to regulate body temperature
by serving as a layer of insulation against the cold.
• And dietary fat facilitates the absorption of the fat-
soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K when consumed at the
same meal.
22
• Saturated fatty acids provide structure to cell
membranes and facilitate normal function of proteins.
• Monounsaturated fatty acids are components of lipid
membranes, especially nervous tissue myelin.
• Both essential fatty acids play a role in maintaining
healthy skin and promoting normal growth in children.
• Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids are involved in the
synthesis of fatty acids, are components of cell
membranes, and play a role in cell signaling pathways.
• Arachidonic acid and EPA are precursors of eicosanoids
(e.g., prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes), a
group of hormone-like substances that help regulate
blood pressure, blood clotting, and other body functions.

23
• Eicosanoids derived from EPA have more health benefits
than those from arachidonic acid;
• EPA eicosanoids help lower blood pressure, prevent
blood clot formation, protect against arrhythmia, and
reduce inflammation.
• Prostaglandins made from arachidonic acid are
responsible for the inflammatory response.
• EPA and DHA may play a role in preventing and treating
heart disease through their anti-inflammatory,
antiarrhythmic, and anticlotting effects. They are
essential for normal growth and development. DHA, in
particular, is abundant in the structural lipids in the brain
and in retinal membranes.

24
 Phospholipids
• Like triglycerides, phospholipids have a glycerol backbone with fatty acids
attached. What makes them different from triglycerides is that a phosphate
group replaces one of the fatty acids.
• Although phospholipids occur naturally in almost all foods, they make up a
very small percentage of total fat intake.
• Phospholipids are both fat soluble (because of the fatty acids) and water
soluble (because of the phosphate group), a unique feature that enables them
to act as emulsifiers.
• They emulsify fats to keep them suspended in blood and other body fluids.
• As a component of all cell membranes, phospholipids not only provide
structure but also help to transport fat-soluble substances across cell
membranes.
• Phospholipids are also precursors of prostaglandins.
• Lecithin is the best-known phospholipid.

25
 Cholesterol
• Cholesterol occurs in the tissues of all animals. It is found
in all cell membranes and in myelin. Brain and nerve cells
are especially rich in cholesterol.
• The body synthesizes bile acids, steroid hormones, and
vitamin D from cholesterol.
• Cholesterol does not provide calories.
• Cholesterol is found exclusively in animals, with organ
meats and egg yolks the richest sources.
• Dietary cholesterol increases total and LDL cholesterol,
but the effect is reduced when saturated fat intake is low.

26
 HOW THE BODY HANDLES FAT
• A minimal amount of chemical digestion of fat occurs in the
mouth and stomach through the action of lingual lipase and
gastric lipases, respectively.
• Fat entering the duodenum stimulates the release of the
hormone cholecystokinin, which in turn stimulates the
gallbladder to release bile.
• Bile, an emulsifier produced in the liver prepares fat for digestion
by suspending the hydrophobic molecules in the watery intestinal
fluid.
• Most fat digestion occurs in the small intestine. Pancreatic lipase,
the most important and powerful lipase, splits off one fatty acid
at a time from the triglyceride molecule, working from the
outside in until two free fatty acids and a monoglyceride remain.
27
• Usually, the process stops at this point, but sometimes
digestion continues and the monoglyceride splits into a free
fatty acid and a glyceride molecule.
• The end products of digestion—mostly monoglycerides with
free fatty acids and little glycerol—are absorbed into intestinal
cells.
• It is normal for a small amount of fat (4–5 g) to escape
digestion and be excreted in the feces.
• The digestion of phospholipids is similar, with the end products
being two free fatty acids and a phospholipid fragment.
• Cholesterol does not undergo digestion; it is absorbed as is.

28
• About 95% of consumed fat is absorbed, mostly in the duodenum
and jejunum.
• Small fat particles, such as short- and medium-chain fatty acids
and glycerol, are absorbed directly through the mucosal cells into
capillaries. They bind with albumin and are transported to the
liver via the portal vein.
• The absorption of larger fat particles—namely, monoglycerides
and long-chain fatty acids—is more complex. Although they are
insoluble in water, monoglycerides and long chain fatty acids
dissolve into micelles, which deliver fat to the intestinal cells.
• Once inside the intestinal cells, the monoglycerides and long-
chain fatty acids combine to form triglycerides.
• The reformed triglycerides, along with phospholipids and
cholesterol, become encased in protein to form chylomicrons.
Chylomicrons distribute dietary lipids throughout the body.

29
 Fat Catabolism
• Whether from the most recent meal or from storage, triglycerides that are
needed for energy are split into glycerol and fatty acids by lipoprotein lipase
and are released into the bloodstream to be picked up by cells.
• The catabolism of fatty acids increases when carbohydrate intake is
inadequate (e.g., while on a very-low-calorie diet) or unavailable (e.g., in the
case of uncontrolled diabetes).
• Without adequate glucose, the breakdown of fatty acids is incomplete, and
ketones are formed. Eventually ketosis and acidosis may result.
• Because fatty acids break down into two-carbon molecules, not three-carbon
molecules, they cannot be reassembled to make glucose.
• Only the glycerol component of triglycerides can be used to make glucose,
making fat an inefficient choice of fuel for glucose-dependent brain cells,
nerve cells, and red blood cells. Fortunately, most body cells can use fatty
acids for energy.

30
 Fat Anabolism
• Most newly absorbed fatty acids recombine with
glycerol to form triglycerides that end up stored in
adipose tissue.
• Fat stored in adipose cells represents the body’s largest
and most efficient energy reserve; most other body
cells are able to store only minute amounts of fat.
• While normal glycogen reserves may last for half a day
of normal activity, fat reserves can last up to 2 months
in people of normal weight. Each pound of body fat
provides 3500 kcalories.

31
 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES
• An Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) is
estimated to be 20% to 35% of total calories for adults.
• The National Research Council, Institute of Medicine
recommends that the intake of both saturated fat and trans fat
be as low as possible within the context of a nutritionally
adequate diet.
• Cholesterol intake, like saturated fat and trans fat, is
recommended to be as low as possible while consuming a
nutritionally adequate diet.
• Symptoms of essential fatty acid deficiency include growth
failure, reproductive failure, scaly dermatitis, and kidney and liver
disorders.

32
• Limit saturated fat, trans fats, cholesterol, and
solids fats.
• A healthy fat profile is achieved with a diet
rich in a wide variety of fruits and vegetables,
whole grains, fat-free and low-fat dairy
products, legumes, nuts, poultry, lean meats,
and fish (at least twice a week).
• In place of solid fats, such as butter and
margarine, vegetable oils such as canola, olive,
soybean, and corn are recommended.

33
• Increase the amount and variety of seafood.
• Moderate evidence shows that 8 oz of seafood
per week (less for young children) from a
variety of seafood sources, which provides an
average daily intake of 250 mg/day of EPA and
DHA, is associated with reduced cardiac
deaths in people with or without
cardiovascular disease.

34