ATOMIC

STRUCTURE
3 Particles of Atoms
Electrons
Protons
Neutrons
The atom above, made up of
one proton and one electron,
is called hydrogen (the
abbreviation for hydrogen is
The proton and electron stay together
because just like two magnets, the
opposite electrical charges attract
each other.  What keeps the two from
crashing into each other?  The
particles in an atom are not still.  The
electron is constantly spinning
around the center of the atom (called
The centrifugal force of the
spinning electron keeps the
two particles from coming into
contact with each other much
as the earth's rotation keeps it
from plunging into the sun.
Helium Atom
As you can see,
 

helium is larger
than hydrogen. 
As you add
electrons, protons
and neutrons, the
size of the atom
   We can measure an atom's size in two
ways:
Using the atomic number (Z) or using the
atomic mass (A, also known as the mass
number).  The atomic number describes the
number of protons in an atom.  For hydrogen
the atomic number, Z, is equal to 1.  For
helium Z = 2.  Since the number of protons
equals the number of electrons in the neutral
atom, Z also tells you the number of electrons
in the atom.  The atomic mass tells you the
number of protons plus neutrons in an atom. 
Ions and Isotopes

H+ : a H : the H- : a

positively hydrogen negatively
charged atom charged
hydrogen  hydrogen 
ion ion
Two Isotopes of
Hydrogen

Hydrogen  Deuterium  
Atomic Mass = Atomic Mass =
1  2  
Atomic No. = 1 Atomic No. = 1
 RADIATION
AND
RADIOACTIVITY
 Three major types
of natural
radioactivity:
 Alpha radiation
 Beta radiation
 Gamma radiation
Alpha decay is a radioactive
process in which a particle
with two neutrons and two
protons is ejected from the
nucleus of a radioactive
atom. The particle is
identical to the nucleus of a
 Alpha decay only occurs in
very heavy elements such as
uranium, thorium and radium.
The nuclei of these atoms are
very “neutron rich” (i.e. have a
lot more neutrons in their
nucleus than they do protons)
which makes emission of the
After an atom ejects an alpha
particle, a new parent atom is
formed which has two less
neutrons and two less protons.
Thus, when uranium-238 (which
has a Z of 92) decays by alpha
emission, thorium-234 is created
(which has a Z of 90).
Like alpha decay, beta decay occurs in isotopes
which are “neutron rich” (i.e. have a lot more
neutrons in their nucleus than they do protons).
Atoms which undergo beta decay are located below
the line of stable elements on the chart of the
nuclides, and are typically produced in nuclear
reactors. When a nucleus ejects a beta particle, one
of the neutrons in the nucleus is transformed into a
proton. Since the number of protons in the nucleus
has changed, a new daughter atom is formed which
has one less neutron but one more proton than the
parent. For example, when rhenium-187 decays
(which has a Z of 75) by beta decay, osmium-187 is
created (which has a Z of 76). Beta particles have a
 After a decay reaction, the nucleus is often in an “excited”
state. This means that the decay has resulted in producing a
nucleus which still has excess energy to get rid of. Rather
than emitting another beta or alpha particle, this energy is
lost by emitting a pulse of electromagnetic radiation called
a gamma ray. The gamma ray is identical in nature to light
or microwaves, but of very high energy.

 Like all forms of electromagnetic radiation, the gamma ray

has no mass and no charge. Gamma rays interact with
material by colliding with the electrons in the shells of
atoms. They lose their energy slowly in material, being able
to travel significant distances before stopping. Depending
on their initial energy, gamma rays can travel from 1 to
hundreds of meters in air and can easily go right through
 The development of the
hot filament tube by
William D. Coolidge in
1983 was a major
advance. Most x-ray tubes
in use today are of this
type.
 Empirical equation for the fraction of the
energy of the electrons converted into x-rays

9
F  1.110 ZV
F = fraction of the energy of the electrons converted
into x-rays
Z = atomic number of the target
V = energy of the electrons (in volts)
 Suitable Target must Have the Following
Characteristics:
 A high atomic number because efficiency
is directly proportional to Z.
 A high melting point because of the high
temperature involved.
 A high thermal conductivity to dissipate
the heat.
 Low vapor pressure at high temperatures
to prevent target evaporation.