Hydrology

THERESE NEDIC, Group 3

Definition

 the branch of science concerned with the properties of the earth's water, and
especially its movement in relation to land.
 the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement and
properties of the waters of the earth and their relationship with the
environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle
The Hydrologic Cycle
Precipitation
Precipitation

 It is the total supply of all forms of moisture emanating (coming) from the clouds
and falling to the ground. OR Precipitation is deposition of atmospheric moisture.
 It is the most important phase in the hydrological cycle.
 Precipitation (Ppt) is the immediate source of stream run-off, hence its
occurrence, distribution and intensity determine the hydrologic behavior of
streams, namely total discharge, discharge regime, and quality of the discharge.
 The mechanism of how ppt is formed in the high atmosphere is a subject matter
of ‘meteorology’.
Formation of Precipitation

Formation of precipitation needs following conditions and processes:

1. Presence of moisture Water vapors’ presence in the atmosphere only conditions for precipitation.
Water vapors are always present in cloudy and even in the dry atmosphere.

2. Condensation process Condensation nuclei present in sufficient quantity condense to form droplets
due to a decrease in atmospheric temperature. These droplets are further condensed to form clouds and
in the form of fog near the ground.

3. Cooling process Cooling takes place by:

Mixing of air masses of different temperature by radiation or by the dynamic ascent of air. Such
cooling leads only to fog formation.The lifting of air produces more cooling which produces:Convective
precipitation (horizontal and vertical mixing of rising air). It is a light shower to cloudbursts.Cyclonic
precipitation (Convergence of air currents in low-pressure zones). It is the major source of
precipitation in plains, in low lands in monsoon season
Types of Precipitation

The precipitation can form as many types depending on the size of droplets and
state of the water usually liquid or solid. The forms of the precipitation can be as
drizzle, rain, glaze, rime, snow, hail and ice pellets.
Convectional precipitation
This type of precipitation is most common in tropics and sub-tropics. It
rarely occurs in other areas. The upward movement of the air that is warmer
than its surroundings causes it.
Orographic precipitation
This type of precipitation results from mechanical lifting of air masses over
mountain barriers. Due to the topographic barriers of mountains, the moisture-
laden air is forced to rise to higher levels, where it expands and cools, resulting
in precipitation.
Types of Precipitation

Cyclonic precipitation
A cyclone is a circular or nearly circular area of low pressure in which wind blows
anti-clock wise in the Northern Hemisphere. A typical cyclone is a large whirling
mass ranging from 800 to 1600 km or more in diameter and may have a wind
velocity of about 50 km/hour. At the center of this mass the barometric pressure
is low.
Rainfall Characterictics

Depth Rainfall is measured as a length, the normal unit here being millimetre. It
is the depth to which water would accumulate if all the rainwater remained at
the same place where it fell without flowing off or seeping into the ground.
Duration Period of time during which continuous rain is observed, or occurs, at a
given point or within a given area.
Intensity a measure of the amount of rain that falls over time.
Rainfall Characterictics

Hyetograph defined as either cumulative or incremental values. 

It is a plot of the intensity of rainfall against the time interval.
Point Rainfall Measurements

It is also known as station rainfall refers to the rainfall data of a station. A rain
gauge is simply an instrument that is designed to measure the amount of
rain that reaches the ground surface during a storm. Rain gauges are
considered the most traditional method for measuring rainfall. They have
been used historically to provide rainfall quantities and rates at a single
point in space.
Different Types of Rain Gauges

Two main type of gauges are being used in measuring the

precipitation. These are as follows:
•Recording type can be grouped as weighing bucket, tipping bucket,
or siphon type gauge. These types are recording the precipitation
either on chart paper or digital.
•Non-recording type is most common type of rain gauge used by
meteorological department.
Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data

Where:
Px = annual missing precipitation at station x
P1,P2,P3,...= precipitation values at neighboring M stations 1,2,3,...
N= Normal annual rainfall
M= no. Of stations
Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data
Conversion of Point Rainfall to Areal Rainfall

To convert the point rainfall values at various stations into an average value over
a catchment the following three methods are in use:
1. Arithmetical- Mean Method
2. Thiessen-Polygon Method
3. Isohyetal Method
Thiessen-Polygon Method

the rainfall is recoded at each station is given a weightage on the basis of an

area closest to the station.
Thiessen-Polygon Method
Thiessen-Polygon Method
Isohyetal Method

An Isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude.

Where:
A - total area
an- area at m station
Pn- Precipitation at m station
Isohyetal Method
Isohyetal Method
Double Mass Analysis

The consistency of a rainfall record is .

tested with double-mass analysis. This
method compares the cumulative annual
(or alternatively, seasonal) values of
station X with those of a reference
station.
Infiltration
Definition

 is the process by which water on the ground surface enters te soil.

 Infiltration is caused by two forces: gravity and capillary action.While smaller
pores offer greater resistance to gravity, very small pores pull water through
capillary action in addition to and even against the force of gravity.
Factors Affecting Infiltration

•Type of soils
•Amount of vegetative cover over the area
•Topography of the land
•Amount of precipitation
 Infiltration Measurements

 Horton’s Equation
Infiltration Measurements

The rainfall hyetograph is subject to a depression storage loss of 0.15 in. and
Horton infiltration with parameters:
fo = 0.45 in/hr,
fc = 0.05 in/hr,
k = 1 hr-1
Calculate the hyetograph of rainfall excess

Fig.1 Rainfall and rainfall excess hyetograph

Infiltration Measurements
Infiltration Measurements

Depresssion storage= 0.15

fo= 0.45 in/hr
fc= 0.05 in/hr
k= 1 hr^-1
1. Plot the rainfall in the hyetograph

Graph of Rainfall
Infiltration Measurements
 Infiltration Measurements

Graph of infiltration capacity

Infiltration Measurements
Infiltration Measurements

Rainfall Excess Graph

Infiltration Measurements

 Two types of infiltration indices

Philip's Infiltration Equation

I(t) = St 1/2+ Kt

Where:
I(t) is cumulative infiltration at a given time (t) (cm)
S is sorptivity (cm/ hr1/2)
K is a permeability coefficient or gravity term (cm/ hr)
Green-Ampt Infiltration Model

Fp
tp 
Where: P

Where:
m and n are green ampt
parameters
Philip's and Green-Ampt Infiltration Model
Green-Ampt Infiltration Model
Green-Ampt Infiltration Model
Philip's Infiltration Model
Ponding Time

If the infiltration capacity of the model experiment is at its highest value, the
duration is defined as the steady rainfall ponding time. (tp)
Fitting Infiltration Models to Infiltation Data using Excel

GRG optimisation method

Generalised reduced gradient (GRG) is an optimisation tool embedded inside

Microsoft excel as GRG solver. It is capable of optimising difficult and
highly nonlinear programming problems. It uses two techniques for determination of
optimised values. The default choice is quasi-Newton method and the second choice
is the conjugate gradient method. 


Evaporation
Physics of Evaporation

 Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or

vapor. the process is the primary path for water to move from the liquid state
back to the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor.
 the key factor determining how fast the liquid could evaporate was not the
temperature difference between the surface and the liquid, but rather the
difference in pressure between the liquid surface and the ambient vapor.

Factors Affecting Evaporation

 Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in

temperature.
 Surface area: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in surface area.
 Humidity: The amount of water vapour present in the air is called humidity. The
rate of evaporation decreases with an increase in humidity.
 Wind speed: Evaporation increases with an increase in wind speed.
 Atmospheric Pressure: Other factors remaining the same, a decrease in
atmospheric pressure (as in high altitude areas) increases the evaporation rate
 Soluble salts: When a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure of the
solution is less than that of pure water and hence it causes reduction in the rate
of evaporation.
Measurements of Different Factors for Evaporation

 Using evaporimeters
 Using empirical equations
 By analytical methods
Available Methods for Estimating Evaporation

 Empirical factors method

This method is based on applying factors to convert ‘standard’ evaporation data, for
grass,into estimates of open water evaporation
 Equilibrium temperature method
 addresses the issue of heat storage by calculating a time series of changes in
heat storage, which can then be included in a model of evaporation.The
equilibrium temperature method uses the concept of an equilibrium temperature
and an
associated time constant.
Basic Subsurface Flow
Steady State Condition
Law of Darcy

Q/A = -K(Δh/ΔL)
where:
Q = volumetric discharge rate (L 3/T)
K = proportionality constant =
hydraulic conductivity (L/T)
A = cross sectional area through which
flow occurs (L 2)
h1-h 2 = difference in hydraulic head
over the flow distance (L) L = distance
through which flow occurs (L)
Law of Darcy

 states that the amount of water

(Q) flowing through porous media
depends on the energy driving the
water flow (Δh/ΔL) and the
hydraulic conductivity (K) of the
porous media
Law of Darcy
Law of Darcy
Law of Darcy
Aquifer

 Unconfined Aquifer  Confined Aquifer

depending on the existence of a water one that is overlain by a confining unit
table, defined by levels in shallow and is under pressure.
wells.
Ground Water Flow

 Confined  Unconfined
Ground Water Flow (Confined and Unconfined)
Ground Water Flow (Confined)
Radial Ground Water Flow

 Confined  Unconfined

Where:
hw= depth of water in
the pumping well of
radius rw
Radial Ground Water Flow (Confined)

a
Radial Ground Water Flow (Unconfined)

a
Travel Time of Ground Water in Confined Aquifer

Where:
s= drawdown
Q= discharge
T= kB
tn= time of drawdown
r=radial distance
 Travel Time of Ground Water in Confined Aquifer

a
Travel Time of Ground Water in Confined Aquifer
Rainfall-Runoff Relation
Definition of Hydrograph

are charts that display the change of a hydrologic variable over time. Here are
several examples from the US Geological Survey's gaging station on the Tioga
River near Mansfield, Pennsylvania. Although these examples are from a stream,
hydrographs can also be made for lakes, water wells, springs and other bodies of
water.
Hydrograph Separation

dis-tinguishes between event and pre-event water. Event water is water

from rain or snow-melt that enters and flows through the system during
the flood, and pre-event water is soil or ground water that is already
stored in the system at the beginning of the event.
Unit Hydrograph

defined as the hydrograph of direct

runoff resulting from one unit depth
(1cm) of rainfall excess occuring
uniformly over the basin and at a
uniform rate for a specified duration
(D hours).
Estimation of Discharge using Unit Hydrograph
Estimation of Discharge using Unit Hydrograph

a
Estimation of Discharge using Unit Hydrograph

a
Estimation of Discharge using Unit Hydrograph

a
Rational Formula

is the simplest method to determine peak discharge from drainage basin runoff.

Q=ciA
Q = Peak discharge, cfs
c = Rational method runoff coefficient
i = Rainfall intensity, inch/hour
A = Drainage area, acre
Rational Formula

Consider a section of a downtown business area of 35,400 square feet that drains
to a particular storm water inlet. The runoff coefficient for this drainage area
has been estimated to be 0.85. Based on a specified design return period and the
time of concentration of the drainage area, the design storm intensity has been
determined to be 5.1 in/hr. What is the peak runoff rate from this area to be
used for design of the storm water inlet?

Q  CiA
35400
 0.85(5.1)( )
43560
 3.52cfs
SCS Curve Method

US Soil Conservation Services (SCS) developed a dimentionless unit hydrograph

based on analysis of large number of watersheds. The x-axis consists of
dimentionless time and units and y-axis consists of dimentionless discharges
units.