ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF

WATER THROUGH SOILS

 Definition of Terms
• Permeability – the ease with which gases, liquids or
plant roots penetrate or pass through a bulk mass of
soil or a layer of soil. It is the key physical property
that governs the flow of water in soils
• Groundwater – water beneath the earth’s surface that
fills the soil pores
• Head (H) – mechanical energy per unit weight
• Hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability)
(k) – proportionality constant to determine the flow of
velocity through soils
 Practical Situation
• an excavation is required to construct the
basement of a building. During construction,
the base of the excavation needs to be free of
water. The engineer decides to use a retaining
wall around the excavation to keep it dry.
Water from outside the excavation will flow
under the wall so to determine the length of
the wall needed to keep the excavation dry,
the soil permeability must be known.
 Head
•• Bernoulli’s
  Principle

 H = total head
 = elevation head
 = pressure head, P
 P = Porewater pressure
 = velocity head,
• Since velocity of flow through soils is small, we neglect
velocity head

• Head loss, – results from energy being dissipated through

friction with the soil particles as water flows through the soil
 Example
• Determine (a) the variations of
the elevation, pressure, and
total heads through the soil
when the pressure gage in the
experimental setup shown in
the figure has a pressure of
19.6 kPa, and (b) the elevation,
pressure, and total heads in
the middle of the soil.
 Darcy’s Law
 PA
∆
  𝐻

 PB

• v = average flow velocity

•   • k = hydraulic conductivity / coefficient of
permeability
• i = hydraulic gradient
• L = length of flow
• Q = Volumetric flow rate
• vs = seepage velocity
• n = porosity
 Darcy’s Law
• Hydraulic conductivity depends on:
– Soil type: coarse grained soils have higher hydraulic conductivities
than fine grained soils.
– Particle size
– Pore fluid viscosity
– Void ratio
– Pore size: the greater the pore size, the higher the hydraulic
conductivity
– Homogenity, layering and fissuring: water tends to seep quickly
through loose layers, fissures, and along the interface of layered soils
– Entrapped gases: entrapped gases tend to reduce the hydraulic
conductivity.
 Darcy’s Law
• Homogeneous clays are practically
impervious.
• Use: dam construction to curtail the flow of
water through the dam and as barriers in
landfills to prevent migration of effluent to the
surrounding area.
• Clean sands and gravels are pervious.
• Use: drainage material or soil filter
 Example
• A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is
placed in a tube 1 m long. A
constant supply of water is
allowed to flow into one end of
the soil at A, and the outflow at B
is collected by a beaker. The
average amount of water
collected is 1 cm3 for every 10
seconds. The tube is inclined as
shown in the figure. Determine
the (a) hydraulic gradient, (b) flow
rate, (c) average velocity, (d)
seepage velocity if e 5 0.6, and (e)
hydraulic conductivity.
 Example
• A drainage pipe became completely blocked during a
storm by a plug of sand 1.5 m long, followed by another
plug of a mixture of clays, silts, and sands 0.5 m long.
When the storm was over, the water level above
ground was 1 m. The hydraulic conductivity of the sand
is 2 times that of the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
(a) Calculate the porewater pressure at (1) the center of the
sand plug and (2) the center of the mixture of clays, silts, and
sands.
(b) Find the average hydraulic gradients in the sand and in the
mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
Example
 Parallel Flow
• When
  flow is parallel to soil layers, hydraulic
gradient is the same at all points

 Ho = total thickness of soil mass

 kH(eq) = equivalent permeability in the horizontal
direction
 kH = horizontal hydraulic conductivity of each layer
 z = thickness of each layer
 Normal Flow
•  
 Ho = total thickness of soil mass
 kV(eq) = equivalent permeability in the vertical
direction
 kV = vertical hydraulic conductivity of each layer
 z = thickness of each layer
 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity
•  

𝑘𝑒𝑞=√ 𝑘 𝐻(𝑒𝑞) 𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞)

 Example
• A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in
the figure. Assuming flow takes place laterally and
vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically
below the canal, determine the equivalent hydraulic
conductivity in the horizontal and vertical directions.
The vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities
for each layer are assumed to be the same. Calculate
the ratio of the equivalent horizontal hydraulic
conductivity to the equivalent vertical hydraulic
conductivity for flow through the sides of the canal.
Example
 Constant Head Test
•• Used
  to determine hydraulic
conductivity of coarse-grained soils.

 h = constant head
 Q = flow rate
 V = volume of water collected in the
measuring cylinder
 t = time
• Temperature correction:

• Corrected coefficient of permeability:

 Falling Head Test
• Used
  to determine hydraulic conductivity of fine-
grained soils because the flow of water through
these soils is too slow to get reasonable
measurements from the constant head test

 a = cross-sectional area of tube

 A = cross-sectional area of soil
 L = length of soil sample
 = time
 h1, h2 = head of water at t1, t2
 Example
• Aporosity
1.
  sampleofof60%
sand, 5 cm in diameter and 15 cm long, was prepared at a
in a constant-head apparatus. The total head was kept
constant at 30 cm and the amount of water collected in 5 seconds was 40
cm3 . The test temperature was 20. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity
and the seepage velocity.
2. The data from a falling-head test on a silty clay are:
– Cross-sectional area of soil = 80 cm2
– Length of soil = 10 cm
– Initial head = 90 cm
– Final head = 84 cm
– Duration of test = 15 minutes
– Diameter of tube = 6 mm
– Temperature = 22
Determine k
 Pumping Test in Unconfined Aquifer
• Assumption:
1. The water-bearing layer (called an aquifer) is unconfined and
nonleaky.
2. The pumping well penetrates through the water-bearing stratum
and is perforated only at the section that is below the groundwater
level.
3. The soil mass is homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite size.
4. Darcy’s law is valid.
5. Flow is radial toward the well.
6. The hydraulic gradient at any point in the water-bearing stratum is
constant and is equal to the slope of groundwater surface (Dupuit’s
assumption).
 Pumping Test in Unconfined Aquifer
•• Simple
  Well Formula:
 Example
1. A pumping test was carried out in a soil bed of
thickness 15 m and the following
measurements were recorded. Rate of pumping
was 10.6 3 10-3 m3/s; drawdowns in observation
wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the center
of the pumping well were 1.6 m and 1.4 m,
respectively, from the initial groundwater level.
The initial groundwater level was located at 1.9
m below ground level. Determine k.
Example
 Groundwater Lowering By Wellpoints
• Sometimes it is necessary to temporarily lower the
groundwater level for construction of foundations. The
process of lowering the groundwater is called dewatering
and is accomplished by inserting wellpoints around the
excavation for the foundations.
• A wellpoint system consists of an interconnected network
of wells (pipes) installed around the perimeter of an
excavation. The wells are installed in rows and the spacing
depends on the soil type and the hydraulic conductivity.
The spacing in clean sands with water depth of about 5 m
is about 1 m to 1.5 m.
 Groundwater Lowering By Wellpoints
•• Drawdown,
  d=H–h

• Radius of influence, R – radius at which the drawdown is zero

• Slichter: does not have a theoretical basis and is not dimensionally
correct. However, it has been satisfactorily applied in practice.

 d in m
 k in m/s
• Kozenzy: dimensionally correct

 t = duration of discharge, s
 n = porosity
 Q = discharge, m3/s
 k = average hydraulic conductivity, m/s
 Example
1. A wellpoint of 0.1 m radius in a permeable
soil layer 7 m thick has a constant discharge
of 0.05 m3/s in a 24-hour operation. The soil
parameters are k = 0.004 m/s and e = 0.5.
Determine the radius of influence and the
maximum drawdown.
 Pumping Test in Confined Aquifer
•  

𝑄 𝑟
𝑘= ln
2𝜋 𝐻 𝑜 ( h2 −h1 ) 𝑟 1
2
()
 Pumping Test in Confined Aquifer
• Transmissivity, T - the rate at which water
passes through a unit width of the aquifer
under a unit hydraulic gradient
T = kt
• t = thickness of confined aquifer