Chapter 3

Flow Space, and Activity

Relationships
Production system is a collection of people,
equipment, and procedures organized to
accomplish the manufacturing operations of an
organization.

Manufacturing
Facilities support systems

1
 Manufacturing
Support Systems

Manufacturing
Support Systems

Business Product Manufacturing Manufacturing

Functions Design Planning Control

• Sales &Marketing • Process planning • Shop floor control

• Forecasting
• Cost accounting
• Customer billing
• Master production • Inventory control
• Quality control
schedule
• Material requirements
planning
• Capacity planning
2
 Manufacturing Control
• Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and
controlling the physical operations in the factory to
implement the manufacturing plans.
• Manufacturing control includes:
– Shop floor control: deals with the problem of monitoring the
progress of the product as it is being processed, assembled, moved,
and inspected in the factory.
– Inventory control: concerned with making balance between
having too little inventory (with possible stocks-out of materials)
and carrying cost too much inventory.
– Quality control: concerned with ensuring that the quality of the
product meets the standards specified by the product designer.
3
 Manufacturing Planning

• Manufacturing planning includes:

– Process planning: determining the sequence of individual
processing and assembly operations needed to produce the
product.
– Master scheduling: a listing of the products to be made, when
they are to be delivered, and in what quantities.
– Requirements planning: ensures that all required material and
parts are available when needed.
– Capacity planning: ensures that the factory is capable of
producing what is required by its given number of machines
and manpower.
4
 Product Design
• Product design involves both determinations of which products are to
be produced and the detailed design of individual products.
• The product design process
– Identification of need: identification some deficiency in current
machine design, adding more features to an existing product,
developing a new product.
– Generation of preliminary ideas with respect to technical choices,
materials, etc.
– Refinement of the product idea.
– Analysis of best designs from point of view of cost, functional
requirements, manufacturability, etc.
– Selection of the best design.
– Creation of a detailed design that provides detailed specifications
with respect to materials, tolerance, etc.

5
 Business Functions
• Business Functions are the principal means
of communication with the customer.
• These functions include:
– sales and marketing
– forecasting
– cost accounting
– etc.

6
 Manufacturing Control
• Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and
controlling the physical operations in the factory to
implement the manufacturing plans.
• Manufacturing control includes:
– Shop floor control: deals with the problem of monitoring the
progress of the product as it is being processed, assembled, moved,
and inspected in the factory.
– Inventory control: concerned with making balance between
having too little inventory (with possible stocks-out of materials)
and carrying cost too much inventory.
– Quality control: concerned with ensuring that the quality of the
product meets the standards specified by the product designer.
7
 Types of
Manufacturing
Systems

Job shop Batch Mass Cellular

Assembly Flow
line line

8
Job Shop

9
 Job Shop (cont.)
• Many different products (specialized and
customized) are produced with a relatively
small volume of each (1 to 100 units/ year).
• The ability to produce a wide verity of outputs
is thus the primary advantage of this form.
• This system requires a variety of general-
purpose equipment and highly skilled labor to
operate.

10
 Job Shop (cont.)
• In terms of costs, the variable costs are high and the
initial cost is low.
– For high production volumes , the job shop is not the most
economic approach.
• Many types of raw materials, parts, and supplies have
to be kept for the wide variety of outputs anticipated.
• Because the output varies in terms of function,
processing, quality, timing, etc, the control of job shop
is extremely difficult.
• Thirty to fifty percent of manufacturing systems in the
United States are of the job shop type.
11
 Flow Shop
• In only a single product is produced.
• The production volume is high (10,000 to millions of units
per year).
• The equipment is very specialized and fast.
• Flow shop systems can be classified into:
– Assembly line: is used to produce a discrete product. Typically,
partial assemblies are moved from one workstation to the next in
sequence by a material handling system. Automobile
manufacturing is a prime example of an assembly line.
– Flow line: is used to describe a continuous production process
such as that of chemicals and liquids.

12
Flow Shop (Mass Production)

A Paper Mill: A Good Example of a Flow Shop

13
 Cellular Manufacturing

Conversion of a job layout into a cellular layout

14
 Cellular Manufacturing
• Cellular manufacturing is a relatively new type of
production system that many firms have recently been
adopting.
• It combines the advantages of the job shop and flow
shop to obtain the high variety possible with the job
form and the reduced costs available with the mass
form.
• All or a portion of a firm’s manufacturing system is
converted into cells.
• A cell is a cluster of machines located in close
proximity and dedicated to the manufacture of a
family of parts. 15
From Job Shop to Flow Shop
(Cont.)

16
Advantages of Cellular Manufacturing
Systems
• Each part is completely processed within a cell.
Thus, the travel time and distance is minimal.
– In an industry, it was found that two products
consisting of 11 subassemblies traveled a total
distance of 64 km. In contrast, if the machines are
placed in cells, the distance will be approximately 6
km.
• Since similar parts are grouped, then it is
possible that these parts require similar tools,
which further reduces the setup time.
• The decrease in setup times can increase
capacity of the machines.

17
Advantages of Cellular Manufacturing
Systems
• The decrease in setup times leads to a
decrease in work-in-process.
• Due to the decrease in work-in-process,
there will be considerable floor space
available for expansion.
• Since the complete part is produced
within the cell, costing is easy.

18
 Reported Benefits
Wemmerlov, U., and D. J. Johnson, “Cellular Manufacturing at 46%
User Plants: Implementations, Experiences and Performance
Improvements,” International Journal of Production Research, Volume
35, 1997, pp 29-49
61% Manufacturing Lead Time

16% Unit Cost

44 % Setup Time

42% Raw Materials Inventory

19
 Reported Benefits

48% Work-in-process

39% Finished Goods Inventory

61% Moving distances

28% Product Quality

20
 Cell Formation
• Cell formation involves identification of machine
cells and part families.
P A R T S
M 1 7
2 3 4 6
5 2
6 5
7
A 2
1 1 1 1 0 2
1
C 5
2 1 1 1 5
2
H 3 1 1 1 1 3
I 4 1 1 1 1 4
N
N 6
5 1 1 1 1 1 6
5
E
E 1
6 1 1 1
1 1 1
6
S
S 7
7 1 1 1 1 7
7
1
1 7
2 3
3 4
4 6
5 2
6 5
7
21
 Cell Formation
Initial Machine-Component Matrix
M COMPONENT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
A 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
C 3 1 1 1 1 1 3
4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
H 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5
6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
I 7 1 1 1 7
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8
N 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9
10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10
E 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
12 1 1 1 1 1 12
13 1 1 13
14 1 1 1 1 14
15 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15
16 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

22
 Cell Formation
• A large number of cell formation approaches
have been developed.
• The main objective of most of these methods is to
obtain independent machine cells by minimizing
inter-cell movement.

23
Minimizing Inter-Cell Movement. P A R T S

M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A 1 1 1 1 1 1
C 2 1 1 1 1 2
H 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
I 4 1 1 1 4
N 5 1 1 1 5
E 6 1 1 1 6
S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

P A R T S P A R T S

M 1 2 8 5 6 3 4 7 M 1 2 8 5 6 3 4 7

A 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 A 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

C 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 C 1 1 1 1 1 1

H 6 1 1 0 1 1 6 H 6 1 1 0 1 1 6

I 4 1 0 1 1 4 I 4 1 0 1 1 4

N 2 1 1 1 1 2 N 2 1 1 1 1 2

E 5 1 1 1 5 E 5 1 1 1 5

S 1 2 8 5 6 3 4 7 S 1 2 8 5 6 3 4 7
24
 Cell Formation Approaches
• Machine-Component Group Analysis: based
on production flow analysis.
– Rank Order Clustering Algorithm
• Similarity Coefficient-Based Approaches:
based on computed similarity coefficients
between machines, tools, etc.
– Single-linkage Cluster Analysis

25
Production Flow
Analysis

26
 Rank Order Clustering Algorithm
Step 1. For row m = 1,2, …. , M, compute the decimal equivalent Cm by reading the
entries as binary words, i.e.:
P
cm   2 P  p a pm ( a pm  0 or 1)
p 1

Reorder the rows in decreasing Cm... In the case of a tie, keep the original order.

Step 2. For column p = 1,2, …. , P, compute the decimal equivalent rp by reading the
entries as binary words i.e.:
M
rp   2 M m a pm (a pm  0 or 1)
m 1

Reorder the columns in decreasing rp. In the case of a tie, keep the original order.

Step 3. If the new part-machine matrix is unchanged, then stop, else go to step 1

27
 Rank Order Clustering Algorithm

Example
Apply ROC to the
shown machine-part
matrix to identify
part families and
machine cells.

28
 Solution
Iteration 1
• Step 1
– The decimal equivalents of the
binary number for rows are
given in the right-hand side of
the matrix.
- By arranging the rows in order
of decreasing rank, we obtain
matrix (1)
• Step 2
– The decimal equivalents of the
binary number for columns are
given in the bottom of matrix
(1).
- By arranging the columns in
order of decreasing rank, we
obtain matrix (2)

29
 Solution (cont.)
Iteration 2
• Step 1
– The decimal equivalents of the
binary number for rows are
given in the right-hand side of
matrix (2).
– By arranging the rows in order
of decreasing rank, we obtain
matrix (3).
• Step 2
– The decimal equivalents of the
binary number for columns are
given in the bottom of matrix
(3).
- By arranging the columns in
order of decreasing rank, we
obtain matrix (4).
30
 Solution (cont.)
Iteration 3 Rearranged machine-part matrix (4)
• Step 1
– The decimal equivalents of
the binary number for rows
are given in the right-hand
side of matrix (4).
- By arranging the rows in
order of decreasing rank,
matrix (4) remains
unchanged, therefore stop.

31
 Solution (cont.)
Although the data of the final matrix of this example are not divided into
independent groups, there are three suggested cells. These cells are:
• Cell 1 consists of machines 1, 2, 4,& 8
• Cell 2 consists of machines 3, 6, & 7
• Cell 3 consists of machines 5, 9 & 10
The part families are:
• Family 1 consists of parts 1, 3, & 6
• Family 2 consists of parts 2, 5 & 8
• Family 3 consists of parts 4 & 7
Notes
– With the above partition, it is observed that part 8 visits cells 1 & 2 to complete
all operations, and part 2 visits cells 2 & 3 to complete all operations. Therefore,
• Parts 8 and 2 are referred to as exceptional parts, and the machines 1 & 10
are referred to as bottleneck machines.
– The identification of bottleneck machines and exceptional parts are
arbitrary.
– The results are dependent on the initial matrix, so the final solution
is not necessarily the best solution.
32
 Single-linkage Cluster Analysis (SLCA)
• Similarity coefficients between machines are computed.
N

X ijk
S ij  N
k 1

 (Y
k 1
ik  Z jk  X ijk )

Xijk= operation on part k performed both on machine i and j

Yik= operation on part k performed on machine i
Zjk= operation on part k performed on machine j
• Similarity coefficients are then used to construct a dendrogram.
• A dendrogram is pictorial representation of bonds of similarity
between machines as measured by the similarity coefficients.

Note: In the literature, a number of similarity coefficients that capture

other factors have been developed, e.g., see the one in page 495.
33
 Single-linkage Cluster Analysis (SLCA) (cont.)

Example 12.5, pp. 494

Consider the following matrix of 10 parts and 5
machines:

Determine similarity coefficients between all pairs of machines

Use the single-linkage cluster analysis method and develop a
dendrogram
34
Single-linkage Cluster Analysis (SLCA)
(cont.)

35
Exceptional Parts and Bottleneck Machines
• The creation of completely independent cells with no
intercell movement is one of the important goals of cell
design.
• In many cases, the above objective can not be achieved.
– Some parts need to be processed in more than one cell.
– These parts are known as exceptional parts and the machines
processing them are known as bottleneck machines.
– This problem can be possibly overcome by:
• Generating alternative process plans
• Duplication of machines
• Subtracting these operations

36
 Flow Patterns
• Flow within workstations
– To establish the flow within workstations, motion studies and
ergonomics should be considered.
• The operator can pick up and discharge materials without walking or
making long or awkward reaches.
• Minimize the time spent on manual handling of materials.
• Maximize operator safety, comfort, and productivity.
• Flow within departments
– In product department (assembly line) and/or product family
department (cellular manufacturing), the flow follows the
product flow.

37
 Flow Patterns (cont.)
• Flow within departments (cont.)
– In process department (job shop or batch production ),
little flow should occurs between workstations within
departments. Why?
– Flow typically occurs between workstations and aisles
– The determination of the best workstation aisle
arrangement pattern is dependent on interactions among
workstations, available space, and size of the materials
to be moved.

38
 Flow Patterns (cont.)
• Flow Between Departments
– It is the criterion which is used to evaluate overall
flow within a facility.

39
 Flow Planning Rules
• Avoid interrupted flow paths. An interrupted flow
path intersects with other paths.

40
 Flow Planning Rules (cont.)
• Avoid backtracking. Backtracking results in
complications in scheduling, excessive flow or
travel, and longer lead-times.

41
 Measuring Flow
• Quantitative Flow Measurement
• Qualitative Flow Measurement

42
 Quantitative Flow Measurement
Flows may be measured quantitatively in terms of the
amount moved between departments.
1. List all departments down the row and across the column.
2. Establish a measure of flow for the facility that accurately
indicates equivalent flow volume.
– If the items moved are equivalent with respect of ease of movement, the
number of trips may be recorded in the from-to-chart.
– If the items moved vary in size, weigh, risk of damage, etc., then items
may be established so that quantities recorded in the from-to-chart
represent the proper relationships among the volumes of movement.
3. Record the flow volumes in from-to-chart.

43
Quantitative Flow Measurement (cont.)

44
Quantitative Flow Measurement (cont.)
Example 4.2, pp. 92

45
Quantitative Flow Measurement (cont.)
Example 4.2 (cont.)

From-to-chart. The circled numbers represent components numbers

and the number following the circled numbers indicates the volume
of equivalent flows for the component. 46
 Qualitative Flow Measurement
• Flows maybe measured qualitatively using the
closeness relationships values given below.

47
 Space Requirements for a
Workstation
The space for a workstation consists of space
for:
– The equipment
– Materials
– The personnel

48
 The Equipment Space
The equipment space for a workstation consists
of space for:
– The equipment
– Machine travel
– Machine maintenance
– Plant services

49
 The Equipment Space (cont.)
At least the following information should be available:
– Machine manufacturer and type.
– Machine model and series number.
– Location of machine safety stops.
– Floor loading requirements.
– Static height at maximum point.
– Maximum vertical travel.
– Static width at maximum point.
– Maximum travel to the left.
– Maximum travel to the right.
– Static depth at maximum point
– Maximum travel toward the operator.
– Maximum travel away from the operator.
– Maintenance requirements and areas
– Plant service requirements and areas 50
 The Equipment Space (cont.)
• Floor requirement for each machine is determined
by:
– Multiplying total width (static width plus maximum
travel to the left and right) by total depth ( static depth
plus maximum travel toward and away from the
operator).
• Total required area for a machine (total machinery
area for a machine) is determined by:
– Adding maintenance and plant service area requirements
to floor requirement.
• The machinery area for a workstation is the sum of
the machinery areas for all machines.
51
 The Materials Space

• The materials areas for a workstation consists of space for:

– Receiving and storing materials.
– In-process materials
– Storing and shipping materials
– Storing and shipping waste and scrap
– Tools and maintenances materials.

52
 The Personal Space (cont.)
• The personal area for a workstation consists of space for:
– The operator (obtained from the method of performing the
operation using motion and ergonomic study)
– Material handling (obtained from the method of performing the
operation using motion and ergonomic study)
– Operator ingress and egress
• Minimum 30-in aisle for operator travel past stationary objects.
• Minimum 36-in aisle for operator walk between a stationary object and an
operating machine
• Minimum 42-in aisle for operator walk between two operating machines

53
 Space Requirements for a
Department
• Departmental area requirements is not simply the sum of
the individual workstations included within the
department.
• Additional space is required within each department for
material handling within the department. Table 4.3
provide a guide for use in estimating aisle space
requirements as a percentage of the net area required for
equipment, material, and personal.
– See Table 4.4 for the recommended aisle widths for various
types of flow.

54
55