HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OG INORGANIC TECHNOLOGY

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Huynh Ky Phuong Ha
 Chapter 1

Chemical Structure and

Crystal Structure
 State of a substance
• Definitions - state and properties
• State: condition of a system as defined by its properties.
• Quantity: characteristic of a system.
• Property: quantity independent of how it got its current value.
• Extensive property: sum of its values for all parts of the
system.
• Intensive property: independent of system size.
• Specific property: extensive property specified w.r.t another.
• Molar property: extensive property specified w.r.t mole.
• Measurable properties: capable of being measured directly.
• Derived properties: derived from measurable properties.
STATES OF SUBSTANCES

GENERAL
 Main 4 states of substances:
– Plasma state
– Gas state
– Liquid state
– Crystal state
 3 pseudo-stable states: (reading yourself)
– Amorphous solid state (vdh)
– Slow freezing state
– Slow boiling state
– Some substances have the mesomorphic (trung gian) state
between liquid ans solid: Liquid crystal
 Liquid-crystal state
– A mesomorphic state having long-range orientational order
and either partial positional order or complete positional
disorder. (isotropic = đẳng hướng)
 Plasma state:
– Matter in ordinary conditions on Earth has electrons that orbit
around the atomic nucleus. The electrons are bound to the
nucleus by the mutual, electrostatic attractive force. If the
temperature is high enough, the electrons (at least those of the
outermost orbits) acquire enough kinetic energy to escape the
atom's potential (similar to a spacecraft that escapes the
Earth's gravitational pull). In this situation the electrons are
no longer trapped in orbits around the nucleus. This is the
plasma state, where a gas becomes a collection of negatively
charged electrons which have escaped the pull of the nucleus
and ions which are positively charged because they have lost
one or more electrons.
– The majority of the matter in the universe is actually found in
the plasma state. This is because stars are made up of material
in the plasma state.
• Plasma: the negatively charged electrons
(yellow) are freely streaming through the
positively charged ions (blue).
 Gas state:
– One of the three fundamental states of matter, in which matter
has no definite shape, is very fluid, and has a density about
0.1% that of liquids. Gas is very compressible but tends to
expand indefinitely, and it fills any container. A small change
in temperature or pressure produces a substantial change in its
volume

– EOS (equation of state) for pure ideal gas

Ideal gas
– Molecules/atoms do not interact.
– Molecules/atoms have no volume.
– Approximates gases well.
– Also termed perfect gas.
– One possible form of the ideal EOS
PV = nRT
 Liquefaction of gases

– Liquefaction of gases is the process by which a

gas is converted to a liquid.
– Liquefaction of a gas occurs when its molecules
are pushed closer together. The molecules of
any gas are relatively far apart from each
other, while the molecules of a liquid are
relatively close together. Gas molecules can be
squeezed together by one of two methods: by
increasing the pressure on the gas or by
lowering the temperature of the gas.
 Critical temperature and pressure

 Two key properties of gases are important in

developing methods for their liquefaction:
critical temperature and critical pressure. The
critical temperature of a gas is the temperature
at or above which no amount of pressure,
however great, will cause the gas to liquefy.
The minimum pressure required to liquefy the
gas at the critical temperature is called the
critical pressure.
 For example, the critical temperature for carbon
dioxide is 88°F (31°C). That means that no amount
of pressure applied to a sample of carbon dioxide
gas at or above 88°F will cause the gas to liquefy.
At or below that temperature, however, the gas can
be liquefied provided sufficient pressure is applied.
The corresponding critical pressure for carbon
dioxide at 88°F is 72.9 atmospheres. In other words,
the application of a pressure of 72.9 atmospheres on
a sample of carbon dioxide gas at 88°F will cause
the gas to liquefy. (An atmosphere is a unit of
pressure equal to the pressure of the air at sea level,
or approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch.)
The Supercritical Diagram of CO2

Solid-Liquid
equilibrium

Supercritical
Fluid

Gas-Liquid
equilibrium
 Liquid state

 The liquid state of a material has a definite volume, but it

does not have a definite shape and takes the shape of the
container, unlike that of the solid state. Unlike the gas
state, a liquid does not occupy the entire volume of the
container if its volume is larger than the volume of the
liquid.

 At the molecular level, the arrangement of the molecules

is random, unlike that of the solid state in which the
molecules are regular and periodic. The molecules in the
liquid state have translational motions as those in a gas
state. There is short order intermolecular ordering or
structure, however.
 Crystal state compare to liquid state
 Crystal state
 A crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms
in a crystal. A crystal structure is composed of a motif,
a set of atoms arranged in a particular way, and a
lattice. Motifs are located upon the points of a lattice,
which is an array of points repeating periodically in
three dimensions.
 The points can be thought of as forming identical tiny
boxes, called unit cells, that fill the space of the lattice
 The lengths of the edges of a unit cell and the angles
between them are called the lattice parameters.
 The symmetry properties of the crystal are
embodied in its space group.
 A crystal's structure and symmetry play a role
in determining many of its properties, such as
cleavage (deã taùch lôùp), electronic band
structure, and optical properties, far distance
order, determination boiling point..
Example SiO2 crystal
 Amorphous solid

 An "amorphous solid" is a solid in which there

is no long-range order of the positions of the
atoms. (Solids in which there is long-range
atomic order are called crystalline solids or
morphous). Most classes of solid materials can
be found or prepared in an amorphous form.
For instance, common window glass is an
amorphous solid, many polymers (such as
polystyrene) are amorphous, and even foods
such as cotton candy are amorphous solids.
Example the amorphous structure of glassy Silica (SiO2)
So crystal state is always more stable than amorphous state
 Crystal lattice systems
Symmetry Factors of Crystal lattice

1/ Center of symmetry: a
point within a crystal
through which any straight
line extends to points on
opposite surfaces of the
crystal at equal distances.
Also called inversion
center.
2/ Inversion face:
A face that divide a
crystal to 2 parts,
and this part is
portrait of the other
part in mirror
3/ Inversion axis:
In crystallography,
an axis of
symmetry which
can be inverted
through 360°
about its centre
then crystal will be
repeated n times.
 n is called order
of the axis.
 Internal structure of crystal lattice

 Crystal lattice is formed from network face.

The point of network interfaces is call lattice
node.

Lattice face (a) and Unit cell(b)

 Unit cell: The crystal
structure of a material or
the arrangement of
atoms in a crystal
structure can be
described in terms of its
unit cell.
 The unit cell is a tiny
box containing one or
more motifs, a spatial
arrangement of atoms.
The unit cells stacked in
three-dimensional space
describe the bulk
arrangement of atoms of
the crystal.
 Lattice Constants
[latticeparameters]
refers to the constant
distance between unit
cells in a crystal
lattice. Lattices in
three dimensions
generally have three
lattice constants,
referred to as a, b,
and c, and three
angles , , .
Crystal systems and unit cell
 1. Triclinic System (Heä
tam taø)
– There is an inversion center,
there are no inversion face
and inversion axis.
– All three axes are of different
lengths and inclined towards
each other.
Based on a 'triclinic' inner
structure, meaning 'three
inclined angles'.
a0  b0  c0 ;       90o
Ex.: K2Cr2O7; CuSO4.5H2O ...
 2/ Monoclinic system (Heä ñôn taø ): There are
three axes, each of different lengths. Two are at right
angles to each other and the third is inclined.
 There is one 2 order inversion axis and/or one
inversion face.
a0  b0  c0;  =  = 90o;   90o &1200
– Example: S, CaSO4.2H2O...
 3/ Orthorhombic system (Rhombic System: Heä tröïc
giao, hệ taø phương): Three axes, all of different
lengths, are at right angles to each other.
 There are some 2 order inversion axes and/or some
inversion faces..
– a0  b0  c0 ;  =  =  = 90o
– Example: S, BaSO4 …
 4/ Trigonal system (Rhombohedral System, Hê ̣ tam phương, Heä
maët thoi)- Axes and angles in this system are similar to the
Hexagonal System, and the two systems are often combined as
Hexagonal. In the cross-section of a Hexagonal crystal, there will
be six sides. In the cross-section of a Trigonal crystal there will be
three sides.
 There is atleast one 3 order inversion axis.
 a0 = b0 = c0 ;  =  =   90o
– Example: CaCO3, NaIO4.3H2O …
5/ Tetragonal System (Heä töù phöông) Two axes
are of equal length and are in the same plane,
the main axis is either longer or shorter, and all
three intersect at right angles.
There is one 4 order inversion axis.
a0 = b0  c0 ;  =  =  = 90o
Example: SnO2, CaWO4
6/ Hexagonal System (Heä luïc phöông) Three out of the
four axes are in one plane, of the same length, and
intersect each other at angles of 60 degrees. The fourth
axis is of a different length and intersects the others at
right angles.
There is one 6 order inversion axis.
– a0 = b0  c0 ;  =  = 90o ,  = 120o
Example: SiO2, NaAlSiO4…
7/ Cubic System (Heä laäp phöông) Also known as the
isometric system. All three axes are of equal length
and intersect at right angles. There are three 4 order
inversion axes.
a0 = b0 = c0 ;  =  =  = 90o
– NaCl, CaF2 ...

14 Bravais lattice
 Packing
Can pack with irregular shapes
 Close packed structures - metals
Most efficient way of packing equal sized spheres.
In 2D, have close packed layers

Coordination number
(CN) = 6. This is the
maximum possible for
2D packing.

Can stack close packed (c.p.) to give 3D structures.

Two main stacking sequences:

If we start with one cp layer, two possible ways of adding a

second layer (can have one or other, but not a mixture) :
Two main stacking sequences:

If we start with one cp layer, two possible ways of adding a

second layer (can have one or other, but not a mixture) :
Let’s assume the second layer is B (red). What about
the third layer?

Two possibilities:
(1) Can have A position again (blue). This leads to the
regular sequence …ABABABA…..
Hexagonal close packing (hcp)

(2) Can have layer in C position, followed by the same

repeat, to give …ABCABCABC…
Cubic close packing (ccp)
Hexagonal close packed Cubic close packed
No matter what type of packing, the coordination
number of each equal size sphere is always 12

We will see that other coordination numbers are

possible for non-equal size spheres
 Metals usually have one of three
structure types:
ccp (=fcc, see next slide),
hcp or
bcc (body centred cubic)

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd

La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
hcp
ccp = fcc
bcc

The reasons why a particular metal prefers a particular

structure are still not well understood
 ccp = fcc ?
Build up ccp layers Add construction lines
(ABC… packing) - can see fcc unit cell

c.p layers are oriented perpendicular to the body

diagonal of the cube
Hexagonal close packed structures
(hcp)

hcp  bcc
CRYSTAL LATTICE STYLES
Molecular lattice is formed from molecules
held together by Van der Waals force.

XeF2 XeF4 Argon (Ar)

Ar has coordination number of 12

Molecules XeF2 and XeF4 have coordination number
of 8
 Substances which have molecular lattice used to
have low hardness, low boiling temperature,
some of them can be dissolved into non-polar
solvents.

 In molecular lattices beside Van Der Waals

bonding, there can be hydro bonding
(compounds of F – H, O – H, N – H groups).
Structure of H2O crystal
Structure of H3BO3 crystal
 Atomic lattice

Atomic lattice refers to the arrangement of atoms into

a crystal structure.
This crystal is formed from atoms combining together
by covalent bomnding follow 3 dimensions. The
hybrid style will decide the distribution rule of
atoms in crystal lattice.
SiO2 Diamond ZnS
 Atom crystals are very stable, hard, they have high
boiling temperature, difficult to evaporate and almost
cannot dissolve into any solvent. They are insulatior or
semiconductor substances.
 Coordination number of an atom is equal to number of
covalent bondings  to around atoms.
 ZnS : Zn and S have coordination number of 4 (sp3).
 SiO2: Si has coordination number of 4 (sp3), and 2 for
O (sp)
 Diamond: C has coordination number of 4(sp3)
 Ion lattice

 Ion lattice is formed from oposite charge ions

at lattice nodes. These ions attract together
by electrostatic force. Ion compounds have
high boiling temperature, difficult to evaporate,
rather hard, some of them can be dissolved into
polar solvents form solvation ions. Ion lattices
just can conduct of electricity in boiling state or
electrolyte solutions.
K2[TiCl6]
 Coordination number is the number of particles
around the center component.

– NaCl: Na and Cl have corrdination number

of 6
– CsCl: Cs and Cl have corrdination number of
8
– K2[TiCl6]: K has corrdination number of 4
(coordinator is complex ion
hexaclorotitanat(IV)).
– Ion [TiCl6]2- has corrdination number of 8
 Metalic lattice

 A metallic lattice consists of positive ions in a

'sea' of outershell negative electrons which are
delocalised and mobile through the metal
structure.
 The lattice is held together by strong forces of
attraction between the mobile electrons and the
positive ions.
 High thermal and electrical
conductivity. 
 Luster and high reflectivity (ánh kim). 
 Malleability (dát mỏng) and ductility
(kéo sợi). They can be beaten or
shaped without fracture. 
 Hard and variability of mechanical
strengths (ranging from soft alkali
metals to Tungsten, which is hard).
W Cu Mg
 Coordination number can be
calculated by number of metal
atoms around.

– W has corrdination number of 8

– Cu has corrdination number of 12
– Mg has corrdination number of 12
BASIC STRUCTURES OF
INORGANIC CRYSTALS

 Base on the distance among particles

they are divided to 4 styles of crystal
lattices: island crystal structure,
chain crystal structure, layer crystal
structure and coordination crystal
structure.
 Island structure

 Island structure has atom groups (molecule

or complex ion) at lattice nodes which are
combined to around particles by Van der
Waals force, hydrogen bonding or electrostatic
force. This structure consits of molecular
lattice and ion lattice with complex ions.
– Example: CO2, XeF4, Ar, H2O, K2[TiCl6]
 Chain structure

 Chain structure is formed by covalent

bonding in one dimension. These chain
combine together by Van Der Waals, ion and
hydrogen forces.
 Most of chain lattices have octahedron unit
structure (AB6), tetrehedron or square (AB4)
with regular compositons such as AB5, AB4,
AB3, AB2 through B bridge.
 The chain has tetrahedron unit structure AB 4
with regular composition AB2 (Ex: BeCl2)

BeCl2

AB2
 The chain has square unit structure AB4 with
regular composition AB2 (Ex: PdCl2).

PdCl2

AB2
 The chain has octahedron unit structure AB6
with regular composition AB4 (Ex: MgCl2.H2O)

MgCl2.2H2O

AB4
 The chain has octahedron unit structure AB6 with
regular composition AB5 (Ex: CrF5- in CaCrF6
compound)

CaCrF6

AB5
 Layer crystal structure

 Layer crystal structure has covalent bonding in

2 dimensions. Layers combine together by Van
Der Waals, ion, hydrogen forces.
 Layers have octahedron structure (AB6) with
regular compositions AB5, AB4, AB3, AB2
through B bridge.
 The chain has octahedron unit structure AB6
with regular composition AB3 , ex: Al(OH)3

Al(OH)3 AB3
 The chain has octahedron unit structure AB6
with regular composition AB2 (ex: CdI2)

AB2
 Coordination structure

 Coordination structure is formed from a

particle which is enclosed by some other
particles such as atoms or single ions
using strong bonding. This structure is
including atom lattice, ion lattice and
metallic lattice.
 Coordination structure has regular
composition A with different structures:

Kim cöông
AA4

W AA8
 Coordination structure has regular
composition AB with different structures:

NaCl (AB6) CsCl (AB8) ZnS (AB4)

 Coordination structure has regular
composition AB2 with different structures:

TiO2 (AB6)

SiO2 (AB4)
 Coordination
structure has
regular
composition AB3
with octahedron
structure AB6.

ReO3 (AB6)
BONDING ESSENCE AFFECT ON PHYSICO
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
There are 5 bonding styles
 Chemical bonding among atoms, ions (strong
bonding):
– Covalent bonding
– Ion bonding
– Metallic bonding
 Bonding among molecules (weak bonding)
– Van der Waals bonding
 External molecular bonding and internal molecular
bonding
– Hydrogen bonding (stronger than Van der Waals bonding,
but weaker than other bonding styles).
  Stronger bonding then higher melting and boiling.

Substances B Al NaCl H2S H2O

Melting 2076 660 601 -85,6 0
temp., 0C

Boiling 3927 2270 1465 -60,4 100

temp., 0C 2519
Bonding Covalent Metallic Ion Van der Van der
style Waals Waals +
hydrogen
State trigonal cubic fcc (face Gas Liquid
centred
cubic)
 Substances with Van der Waals
bonding which have higher
molecular weigh have higher
melting and boiling temperature. If
they have hydrogen bonding also
they will have clearly higher
melting and boiling temperature.
Halogen F2 Cl2 Br2 I2

Melting point, 0C -219,6 -100,1 -7,2 113,5

Boiling point, 0C -187 -34,15 58,75 184,5
Radius, Ǻ 0.64 0,99 1,14 1,33
Bonding style Van der Waals
Hydrogen halogenide HF HCl HBr HI
Melting point, 0C -83,4 -114,2 -86,9 -50,8
Boiling point, 0C 19,5 -85,1 -66,8 -35,4
Radius, Ǻ 1,33 1,81 1,96 2,2
Bonding style Van der Waals +
hydrogen Van der Waals
 Strength of metallic bonding is
depended on electrons density.
Electron-gas density is concerned
number of valence electrons of
metal. So substances with metallic
bonding have very different melting
and boiling point.
 Substances K Ca Sc Ti
Melting point, 0C 63 850 1539 1668

Boiling point, 0C 766 1490 2700 3330

Radius, Ǻ 2,36 1,97 1,64 1,46
Valence electrons 4s1 4s2 3d14s2 3d24s2

Substances Li Na K Rb
Melting point, 0C 180 98 63 39
Boiling point, 0C 1330 900 766 700

Radius, Ǻ 1,55 1,89 2,36 2,48

Valence electrons ns1
 Defects in crystal
 • Nothing in Nature is perfect, and crystals
are no exception. Any real crystal contains
defects, and these affect its properties in
various ways.
 • Defects in diamond alter the colour;
 • defects in semiconductors (of the right
kind) allow
 them to be used to make devices;
 • defects in metals alter their mechanical
properties;
 • defects affect thermal and electrical
conductivity.
POLYMORPHIC , ALLOTROPIC

 POLYMORPHIC(đa hình): one substance can

have some others crystal structures.

– Ex: Carbon has polymorphs: Diamond, graphite

– Oxyhydroxide iron(III) hasù 3 polymorphs:  -

FeOOH,  - FeOOH and  - FeOOH.
Diamond Graphit
 Polymorphic changing temperature: At this
temperature this allotrope can be changed to
another allotrope.
 Polymorphic Reversible process:
– Ex: Sorthorhombic  Smonoclinic
 ISOMORPHIC AND SOLID SOLUTION

 Isomorphic: Other solid substances can have

the same crystal structure, where their
components can replace in other structure.
Their products are substitutional solid
solutions.

– Ex: Olivine is a substitutional solid solution

between Fe2SiO4 and Mg2SiO4
Red cycle is Fe2+, blue cycle is Mg2+, big deep blue cycle
is O2-, and Si+4 are located inside the octahedral of O2
 IONIC LATTICE’S ENERGY

 Definition: Ionic lattice’s energy is the amount of

energy that enough to form 1 mol of this lattice from
gas ions at 0K.

 In reality, it can be considered this is amount of

energy enough to destroy 1 mol of the lattice.

 It’s very difficult to calculate directly, so we use to

use the other methods to calculate for ionic lattice’s
energy.
LATTICES’S ENERGY (REFERENCE)
 Calculation of Lattice’s Energy

Theorical Method (0K)

Empirical Method Born-Mayer’s equation
Born-Haber Cycle Born-Lande’s equation
Kapustinskii’s equation

Apply the 1st Law of

Base on electrostatic
Thermodynamic
force of pure ions
Hess’s Law
 Variation trends of lattice energy

 Effect of ion’s size

 Increasing of ion size leads to decreasing of lattice’s
energy (the same ion’s charge), Taêng kích thöôùc
ion seõ giaûm naêng löôïng maïng (vôùi ion cuøng
ñieän tích), because the attractive force between
cation and anion will be decreased from top to
bottom of groups.
 Effect of ion’s charge
 Increasing of ion’s charge leads to increasing of
lattice’s energy.
 BORN – HABER’S CYCLE
 Energy of NaCl(s) is calculated from below
equation:
 Na(s) + ½ Cl2(g)  NaCl(s)

Born – Haber’s
equation (base on
Hess’s Law) is built as
below:
 Na+(g) + Cl-(g)
INa ECl
Energy of
lattice (U)
Na(g) Cl(g)

HsubNa ½ Edis.

Htt
Na(s) + ½ Cl2(g) NaCl(s)
Where:
Hsub.NaCl: Sublimation energy of Na = 108 kI/mol
INa: Ionization energy = 496 kJ/mol
Epl: Dissociation of Cl2(k) = 224 kJ/mol
Htt: Heat of formation of NaCl (r) = -411 kJ/mol
ECl: Electron affinity of Cl = -349 kJ/mol

Apply Hess’s Law:

Htt = Hsub.Na + INa + ½ Edis. + ECl + U
U = Htt - Hsub.Na - INa - ½ Edis. - ECl
= -411 – 108 – 496 – 224/2 + 349
= - 788 kJ/mol
 COULOMB FORCE – BORN’S EQUATION
 Electrostatic force in ionic  Where:
molecule is calculated using e: Electron’s charge:
Coulomb:
= 1.6022x10-19 C
e 2 z z r: Distance between 2 ion (m).
F
4 0 r z+, z-: Charge values of ions.
0: Vacuum dielectric constant.
 From this result, energy of
lattice is calculated by 40=1.11265x10-10 C2/(J.m)
Born’s equation (for 1 mol NA: Avogadro’s constant
crystal):
2 = 6.0221415 × 1023
MN Ae z z
Elat  M: Madelung’s constant (later).
4 0 r
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BORN-HABER’S CYCLE
BORN’S EQUATION

NOTE: Sign of energy of lattice: - or + ? (what’s

right ???)
 MADELUNG’S CONSTANT M
FOR SOME COMPOUNDS

COMPOUND M COMPOUND M

ZnS 1.64 CdI2 2.36

CsCl 1.76 CaF2 2.40

NaCl 1.75 TiO2 2.52

Al2O3 4.17 MgF2 2.38

 BORN – MAYER’S EQUATION
N A Z  Z  e2  d 
Elat  1   M
4 o d o  d o 

Where:
• do = r+ + r-
•d : Constant (is 34.5 pm if r in pm, 10-12m)
•Then:
1390 Z  Z   d 
Elat  1   M (kJ / mol )
do  do 
DIFFRENCE BETWEEN BORN-HABER’S CYCLE
AND BORN – MAYER’S EQUATION
 BORN – LANDE’S EQUATION

MN A Z  Z  e 2 1
Elat  (1  )
4 0 r0 n

 r0 is distance between 2 ions (r0 = r+ + r-)

 Note: - sign is added in result if Z in absolute value.
 n is factor which shows relationship between anion and cation
(Born’s constant).
 r0 in meter, E in J/mol.
 Value n
 Base on electron configuration of ion (compare to
noble gases) :
Ion the same to: He Ne Ar Kr Xe
n: 5 7 9 10 12
 If anion and cation have difference of n then n

may be average of two values.

 Some specific value:

LiF LiCl LiBr NaCl NaBr Cu+ Ag+ Au+

5.9 8.0 8.7 9.1 9.5 9 10 12
  Ex.:
Energy of NaCl lattice.

2
MN Z Z e 1
Elat  A  
(1  )
4 0 r0 n
19 2
1.75 x6.023x10 (1)(1)(1.602 x10 )
23
1
 12 12
(1  )
4 x3.142 x8.854 x10 x 282 x10 9.1
 766376 J / mol  766.376 kJ / mol
 PHÖÔNG TRÌNH KAPUSTINSKII
(1071.5) n | z  || z  |
Elat   kJ / mol
r  r
 ÔÛ ñaây coù daáu trò tuyeät ñoái neân phaûi coù daáu -.
 r tính baèng A0 (10-10m).
 Ví duï: Vôùi NaCl
 E = -(1071.5x2x1x1)/(2.83) = -757.24 kJ.mol
 Phöông trình naøy khaù chính xaùc vaø ñöôïc söû duïng roäng
raõi.
 Phöông trình naøy coøn ñöôïc söû duïng ñeå öôùc löôïng baùn
kính cuûa nhöõng ion phöùc taïp, nhö trong baûng döôùi ñaây.
 CRYSTAL STABILITY
 The mutual polirization (Söï phaân cöïc töông hoã)
among ions lead to increasing of co-valent bonding of
compounds, then ion’s charges will be decreased, and
dissocitation temperature, melting point… are also
decreased in ion lattice.
 Ex.: CaF2 is very stable upto 10000C, while CuI2 is
not stable even at room temperature.
 Explain: r[Cu2+] = 0.72 Ao < r[Ca2+] = 0.99Ao.
 While r[I-]>>r[F-], so Cu2+ pulls electron density from I-
then ion’s charge will be decreased.
 When CaF2 has higher ion charges for both ions.
 Ex.:
 Consider the melting point of below series:

 Compound : LiF LiCl LiBr LiI

 Tmelt. (0C) : 848 607 550 469

 Compound : MgCO3 CaCO3 SrCO3 BaCO3

 Tmelt. (0C) : 600 897 1100 1400
 SOLUBILITY
 Solubility of a compound is effected by 2 factors:
Energy of lattice Elat and hydration energy Eh.
 If Elat>>Eh then this salt is difficult to dissolve and reverse.
When Elat is increased, and Eh is increased the solubility will
be decreased, and reverse.
 Eh depends on polarization ability of cation on water, Eh
increases together with polarization:
Salt CaSO4 SrSO4 BaSO4
Solubility(mol/l) 8x10-3 5x10-4 1x10-5
Elat (kJ/mol) 2347 2339 2262
Eh (kJ/mol) 1703 1598 1444