RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Introduction
2. Ways of Knowing
3. Goals of Research
4. The Scientific Method
5. Research Settings
6. Research Methods
1. Descriptive/Correlational
2. Experimental
7. Theory in Science
8. Research Ethics
Ways of Knowing
 Tenacity (Faith)
 Authority
 Consensus
 Reason
 Observation
Goals of Research
To “understand” human behaviour
 Describe
 Identify and classify regularly occurring sequence of events

 Explain
 Suggest why events occurred.

 Predict
 Find regularities and predictable relationships that exist between variables
 Control
 Regulate the occurrence of the phenomenon
The Scientific Method
 Observation and Discovery
 Exploration of a phenomenon which helps to generate

hypotheses.
 Demonstration
 Gather data to demonstrate, confirm, or support the

hypothesis.
 Refutation
 Gather data to refute, disconfirm, reject a hypothesis.

 Replication
 Repeat the study to examine generalizability, understand

contrary evidence, etc.

Research Settings
 Laboratory Studies
 Field Studies
Descriptive/Correlational
Methods
 Goals:
1. systematically describe social behaviour
2. systematically describe relations between
variables.
 Some types of descriptive/correlational
methods include:
1. Observation studies
2. Archival studies
3. Survey studies
Descriptive/Correlational
Methods, cont.
 Observational Studies
 Obtrusiveness (Natural Observation to
Participant Observation)
Descriptive/Correlational
Methods, cont.
 Archival Studies
Archival analysis is a form of the observational
method whereby the researcher examines the
accumulated documents, or archives of a culture
(e.g., diaries, novels, magazines, and
newspapers).
Inter-judge reliability is the level of agreement
between two or more people who independently
observe and code a set of data.
Descriptive/Correlational
Methods, cont.
 Survey Studies
 Verbal (self-) reports
 Types include
 Written questionnaire
 Personal interview
 Telephone interview
Descriptive Statistics
 Central Tendency
 Mean
 Median
 Variability
 Standard deviation
Correlation
 Correlation Coefficient
 A measurement of the degree to which two
variables are related. Ranges from –1.00
to +1.00.
 Scatterplot
 A graphic representation of a correlation;
one value is plotted against the horizontal
axis and the other against the vertical axis.
Causation
 Covariation
 The presumed cause (X) and effect (Y) are related
to each other.
 Temporal precedence
 The X occurred before the resumed effect Y
 Third variable
 The relationship between X and Y is not explained
by the presence of other plausible causal agents.
Experimental Methods
 Independent  Dependent Variable

Variable The variable (usually a

The factor that is behaviour) that is
systematically affected by the
manipulated so that independent
the researcher can variable.
examine its effect on
a dependent
variable.
Experimental Methods,
continued
 Random selection or random sampling
 Every person in a given population has an
equal chance of being selected for the
sample
 Random assignment to condition
 All participants have an equal chance of
taking part in any condition of an
experiment.
Experimental Methods, continued
An operational definition is the specification of how
variables are measured, or manipulated.

 Construct Validity
 The degree to which both the independent and

dependent variables accurately reflect or

measure the constructs of interest.
Experimental Methods, cont.
 Internal Validity
 The extent to which conclusions can be drawn
about the causal effects of one variable on
another.
 See also “experimental realism”
Experimental Methods, cont.
 External Validity
 The extent to which the results of a study can
be generalized to the larger context
 Generalizability across situations
 Generalizability across people
 Generalizability across cultures
 See also “mundane realism”
Inferential Statistics
 Statistical Significance
 The likelihood that an observed relation or
difference between two variables is not due to
chance factors.
 Probability level (p-value): a numerical indicator
of how likely it is that the results of an experiment
occurred by chance and not because of the
independent variable (p < .05 means that there is
less than a 5 in 100 probability that the results
may be due to chance.)
Bias in Psychological Research
 Random Error
 Causes random variability in DV
 Systematic Error or Bias
 Causes nonrandom variability in DV other
than that caused by the IV.
Types of Bias
 Sample Bias
 Measurement Bias
 Observer’s (Researcher’s) Bias
 Subject’s Bias
Sample and Measurement
Biases
 Sample Biases  Measurement Biases
 Random assignment  Validity
 Reliability
Observer’s and Subject’s Biases
 Observer-Expectancy Effects
(experimenter/Rosenthal effect)
 Subject-Expectancy Effects
(demand characteristics)
 Preventing Biases
 Single-blind study
 Double-blind study
 Placebo
What is a Theory
(and Related Constructs)?
 1. Construct
 A symbol or an analogy of an observable phenomenon.

 2. Model
 A constructed representation of a part of the universe.

 3. Theory
 A theory attempts to explain a phenomenon. It contains

constructs of that phenomenon and describes the

relations among these constructs. It incorporates
relations between the theoretical constructs and
observable variables that can be used to measure those
constructs.
 A theory is not necessarily supported by research

findings. Theories are usually partial, incomplete

explanations of a phenomenon, subject to expansion and
revision. (Continued next slide)
What is a Theory (Continued)
 4. Hypothesis
 A simple declarative statement

derived from a theory, usually

regarding the nature of a construct
and/or its relation to other
constructs.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING SCIENTIFIC
THEORIES
 1. Comprehensiveness
 Explains a wide range of phenomena

 2. Internal Consistency
 Propositions and assumptions are consistent and fit

together in a coherent manner.

 3. Parsimony
 Contains only those concepts and assumptions essential

for the explanation of a phenomenon.

 4. Testability
 Concepts and relational statements are precise.

(Continued next slide)

Criteria for Evaluating Scientific Theories
(Continued)
 5. Empirical Validity
 Holds up when tested in the real world.

 6. Heuristic Value
 Stimulates thinking and research.

 7. Applied Value
 Helps solve problems in the real world.
Ethics
 Informed Consent
 Risks and Benefits
 Deception
 Privacy, Confidentiality, and Anonymity
 Special Groups
Informed Consent
 A description of the study should be
provided in advance, including mention
of: the purpose of the research;
expected benefits of the research;
methods (tasks to be performed); any
effects, risks or inconveniences of the
procedure; rights of the participant; and
any possible alternative procedures.
Risks and Benefits
 Protection from harm
 The onus is on the researcher to avoid
or minimize risks to the subjects, both
in carrying out the research and in
publication of the results.
Deception
 Deception is a situation in which
subjects have essential information
withheld and/or are intentionally misled
about procedures and purposes.
 A thorough debriefing is particularly
important in studies involving
deception.
Privacy, Confidentiality and
Anonymity
 Right to privacy
 Personal information given by the
subject will be confidential. Wherever
possible, the researcher will take steps
to ensure the anonymity of the
subjects.
Vulnerable Groups
 Special care must be taken with
vulnerable groups to ensure ethical
treatment (e.g., prisoners, people with
mental disabilities, other cultures, etc.)