Origin of Hydrocarbons,

Traps & Seals

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OBJECTIVES

Students should be able to:

1. Understand the chemical makeup of petroleum
2. Explain the origin and production of hydrocarbons
3. Differentiate between the different types of kerogen
4. Understand the principle of hydrocarbon migration
5. Explain the different types of hydrocarbon migration
6. Understand and explain the different categories of hydrocarbon traps

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WHAT IS PETROLEUM

• Petroleum is a term used to include both oil

and gas
• It is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules and
lesser quantities of organic molecules
containing sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and some
metals.

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CHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM

• Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons and other organic compounds that together dictate its chemical and physical
properties.
• Hydrocarbons are molecules composed of hydrogen (H) and carbon (C) bonded together. Petroleum also contains
lesser quantities of organic molecules that contain nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and sulfur (S).
• Small but significant quantities of organometallic compounds (commonly with vanadium and nickel) are also present,
as are a large array of elements in trace quantities
• The most common groups of hydrocarbons found in natural occurrences of petroleum are saturated compounds
found in:
1. alkane or paraffins,
2. Naphthene / Cycloparaffins
3. Aromatics
4. Asphaltenes

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CHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM - ALKANES

• Alkanes (paraffins) are stable compounds with the

maximum permitted number of hydrogen
atoms with a chemical formula CnH2n+2 where n is the whole
number of carbon atoms.
• Alkanes contain chains (branched or straight) of carbon
atoms but no closed loops.
• Important gases are methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane
(C3H8) and butane (C4H10)
• Paraffins from carbon numbers 5, pentane (C5H12) to 15,
pentadecane (C15H32) occur mainly as liquids at room
temperature
• Paraffins with more than fifteen carbon atoms range from
very thick, viscous liquids to waxy solids

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CHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM - NAPHTHENES
(CYCLOALKENES)

• Naphthenes (cycloparaffins) are a series of cyclic

(ring structured), saturated hydrocarbons with the
general formula (CH2)n
• The most simple is cyclopropane (C3H6), which is a
gas.
• Cyclopentane (C5H10) and cyclohexane (C6H12) are
liquids and are abundant in most crude oils.
• Large naphthene molecules commonly have more
than one ring
• Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but
have higher boiling points

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CHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM - AROMATICS

• The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated
hydrocarbons 
• They have one or more planar six-carbon
rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen
atoms are attached with the formula CnH2n-6
• Benzene ring structure is C6H6.
• They do indeed have a characteristic aroma,
but they typically have a negative
environmental impact. The ones that have a
low molecular weight are volatile

Aromatic compounds are unsaturated ring compounds with the

chemical formula CnHn. The simplest compound is benzene
(C6H6). Side branches are common, and generate a variety of
compounds with contrasting physical properties 7
CHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM - ASPHALTENES

• Asphaltenes or resins are complex

hydrocarbon compounds that are relatively
enriched in N, S and O
• They are characterized by high molecular
weight and large size, and form some of the
heaviest molecules in crude oils.
• These compounds are frequently found in
immature oils and where the original oil has
been altered due to biological activity,
generally at low temperatures (below about
900C) .

An example of possible structure for an

asphaltene molecule.
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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM - SOURCE ROCKS

• A source rock can be broadly defined as any fine-grained, organic-rich rock that is capable of
generating petroleum, given sufficient exposure to heat and pressure.
• Its petroleum-generating potential is directly related to its volume, organic richness and thermal
maturity.
• Although its volume a function of thickness and areal extent must not be discounted, organic
richness must be considered.
• Organic richness refers to the amount and type of organic matter contained within the rock.
• Thermal maturity refers to a source rock s exposure to heat over time.
• Heat increases as the rock is buried deeper beneath successive layers of sediment.
• It is the thermal transformation of organic matter that causes a source rock to generate
petroleum.
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 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM - SOURCE ROCKS

• In general, quality source rocks whether

carbonate or shale share a number of common
characteristics:
1. They form in anoxic, or highly reducing,
environments
2. Generally laminated
3. Moderate to high TOC
4. Contain organic matter exemplified by atomic
hydrogen/carbon ratios exceeding 1.2

Blue Lias Shale Formation

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 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM - SOURCE ROCKS

Three major factors, primary productivity, preservation, and

dilution, determine whether organic-rich source rocks are
deposited. These factors are interrelated and influenced by a
number of geologic conditions 11
 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM - OVERVIEW

Organic Content
• Petroleum is generated from organic matter (dead plants
and animals) which accumulates in sedimentary basins.
• Only a small fraction of the organic matter produced in the
photic zone in the ocean becomes trapped in sediments
• The organic matter may be derived from marine
organisms, mostly algae, or from plants derived from land
• Most of the organic matter is oxidised in the water column
or on the seafloor and the
nutrients are released into the water and become
available for new organic production near the surface
during upwelling
• The organic matter will be subjected to burial over time Formation of source rocks. Only a small fraction of the
organic matter is preserved. The formation or organic-rich
which leads to an increase in temperature that facilitates
source rocks requires restricted water circulation and oxygen
the gradual transformation of the organic matter into an supply
insoluble organic matter known as kerogen.
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 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM - OVERVIEW

Kerogen
• Kerogen is a term used to refer to a somewhat dehydrated organic matter after burial to about 100m
or more.
• The kerogen continues its alteration as heat increases; these changes, in turn, result in an evolution
of the petroleum compounds that are subsequently generated.
• The transformation of amino acids, carbohydrates, humic acids and other compounds into kerogen
is achieved by the removal of functional groups such as acid groups, aldehydes and ketones.
• This involves a loss of oxygen from the organic material, also of nitrogen, water and CO2
• Kerogen therefore has higher H/C, and lower O/C, ratios than the initial compounds
• Kerogen may also include organic particles of morphologically recognisable biological origin such as
vitrinite (derived from woody tissues and liptinite materials, e.g. algae spores, cuticles, etc.)

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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM – OVERVIEW

Thermal maturation of source rocks

• With increasing temperature the chemical bonds in these large molecules (kerogen) are broken and
kerogen is transformed into smaller molecules which make up oil and gas.
• This requires that the temperature must be 80–150◦C over long geological time (typically 1–100 million
years).
• The conversion of kerogen to oil and gas is thus a process which requires both higher temperatures
than one finds at the surface of the earth and a long period of geological time.
• Only when temperatures of about 80–90◦C are reached, i.e. at 2–3 km depth, does the conversion of
organic plant and animal matter to hydrocarbons very slowly begin to take place.
• About 100–150◦C is the ideal temperature range for this conversion of kerogen to oil, which is called
maturation. This corresponds to a depth of 3–4 km with a normal geothermal gradient (about 30–
40◦C/km)
• Matures shallower in volcanogenic regions and deeper in intracratonic basins / passive margins (20-25 degC
per Km)
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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM – OVERVIEW

Thermal maturation of source rocks

• As the temperature rises, more and more of the bonds are broken, both in the kerogen and in the
hydrocarbon molecules which have already been formed.
• This “cracking” leads to the formation of lighter hydrocarbons from the long hydrocarbon chains
and from the kerogen.
• The removal of gas, mainly CH4, leaves the residual kerogen relatively enriched in carbon.

Stages of Thermal Maturation

• The thermal maturation process can be divided into three stages.
1. Diagenesis
2. Catagenesis
3. Metagenesis

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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM – STAGES OF THERMAL
MATURATION PROCESS

1. Diagenesis
• Encompasses all natural changes in sediments occurring from the moment of deposition until just before
the onset of significant thermal alteration processes.
• For source rocks, however, this stage is characterized by alteration of organic matter, typically at
temperatures below about 50 C [122 F].
• During diagenesis, oxidation and other chemical processes begin to break down the material.
• If deposited under anoxic conditions, this material may be converted by methanogenic bacteria into dry gas.
• With increasing temperatures and changes in ph, the organic matter is gradually converted to kerogen and,
in lesser amounts, bitumen.
• The source rock matures with increasing heat, and it undergoes catagenesis.

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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM – STAGES OF THERMAL
MATURATION PROCESS

2. Catagenesis
• During catagenesis, petroleum is generated as temperature increases to between 50 C and 150 C [122 F and
302 F], causing chemical bonds to break down within the kerogen.
• Within this oil window, Type I and II kerogens produce both oil and gas, while Type III kerogens produce
mainly hydrocarbon gas.
• Further increases in burial depth, temperature and pressure force the source rock into the upper part of the
gas window, where secondary cracking of the oil molecules produces wet gas containing methane, ethane,
propane and heavier hydrocarbons

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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM – STAGES OF THERMAL
MATURATION PROCESS

3. Metagenesis
• Metagenesis marks the final stage, in which additional heat and chemical changes convert much of the
kerogen into methane and a carbon residue.
• As the source rock moves farther into the gas window, late methane, or dry gas, is evolved, along with
nonhydrocarbon gases such as carbon dioxide [CO 2 ], nitrogen [N 2 ] and hydrogen sulfide [H 2 S].
• These changes take place at temperatures ranging from about 150 C to 200 C [302 F to 392 F]

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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM - PRESERVATION OF ORGANIC
MATTER

• The two basic requirements for the generation and preservation of organic matter in sediments are:
• high productivity
• oxygen deficiency of the water column and the sea bed.
• The supply of organic matter to any depositional site is controlled by primary productivity (commonly within the top
50 m of the water column) and the depth of water through which the material must settle.
• Preservation beneath the sediment/water interface is a function of the rate of burial and oxygenation of the bottom
waters.
• Both productivity and oxygen deficiency at the site of deposition can combine to produce excellent source rock,
although some source rocks may result from a dominance of only one control.
• Environments of high organic productivity include
• Continental margins
• lagoons and restricted seas
• deltas in warm latitudes
• lakes
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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM - PRESERVATION OF ORGANIC
MATTER

• Oceanic waters tend to be stratified although water circulation from the surface to sea bed also
occurs.
• The stratification results from high organic productivity in the photic zone (i.e., in the top 50 m of
the water column, influenced by sunlight).
• Periodical overturning of the oxygenated waters from the surface supplies oxygen to organisms
whose habitat is the deep ocean, including the ocean floor.
• Between the periods of overturning, the high biological activity at the surface causes oxygen
deficiency in the layer immediately beneath.
• Where this anaerobic layer intersects the sea bed on the
shelf and upper slope of the continental margin, organic debris is preserved, since there is a relative
scarcity of organisms here to scavenge the debris.

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ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM - PRESERVATION OF ORGANIC
MATTER

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 ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM
- PRESERVATION OF
ORGANIC MATTER
• Along some parts of the continental margins, upwelling of
nutrient-rich waters creates a favorable niche for even
higher levels of organic productivity; Periodic algal
blooms, which are most frequent in conditions of calm
and warmth, can also act to poison the microplankton,
leading to high deposition and preservation rates in these
settings.
• Rapid deposition leads to quick burial below the zone of
organic scavenging near the sea bed. The same rapid
deposition and subsidence generate massively thick
sediment piles which, in total, contain a great deal of
terrestrially derived, organic matter
Oxic (left) and anoxic (right) depositional environments generally result in
• Freshwater lakes on continents are sites for high poor and good preservation of deposited organic matter, respectively. The
productivity and preservation in the anoxic bottom waters solid horizontal line separates oxic (above) from anoxic (below). In oxic
settings, bottom dwelling metazoa bioturbate the sediments and oxidize
that characterize the lake bed. The dominant organisms most organic matter. In anoxic settings, especially where the oxic-anoxic
that create lacustrine oil shales are algae and boundary occurs in the water column, bottom- dwelling metazoa are
fungi/bacteria absent and sediments are not bioturbated.  22
COMPOSITION OF KEROGEN

• Being a complex of very large molecules (polymer),

kerogen is difficult to analyse, but upon heating to
350–450◦C in an inert atmosphere (pyrolysis) it will
break down into smaller components which can then
be analysed by means of gas chromatography and
mass spectrometry.
• Kerogen has a wide range of compositions, dependant
on the original organic composition, but may be
classified into 4 main types which may be plotted as a
function of the H/C ratio and the O/C ratio

A modified Van Krevelen diagram shows changes to kerogen brought on by

increased heat during burial. The general trend in the thermal
transformation of kerogen to hydrocarbon is characterized by generation of
nonhydrocarbon gases; it then progresses to oil, wet gas and dry gas. During
this progression, the kerogen loses oxygen primarily as it gives off CO 2 and
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H 2 O; later, it begins to lose more hydrogen as it evolves hydrocarbons. 
TYPES OF KEROGEN

Type I Kerogen
• Type 1 kerogen is quite uncommon
• Type I sapropelic kerogen is formed from organic material with a high content of lipids with long
aliphatic chains.
• It consists of spores and planktonic algae, as well as animal matter, which have been broken down
microbially after deposition in the sediment.
• Saprolitic material which consists of fats, oils, waxes, etc., has a high H/C ratio, usually between 1.3
and 1.7.
• Contains little oxygen (O/C <0.1).
• It will provide mainly oil, with less gas (CH4 and CO2).
• Type I kerogen is typical of oil shales, especially in freshwater basins

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TYPES OF KEROGEN

Type II Kerogen
• Type II kerogen is typically generated in reducing environments found in moderately deep marine settings.
• It is derived primarily from the remains of plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton ) that have been reworked
by bacteria and may occasionally include land-derived plant material.
• Type II kerogen represents a composition midway between types I and III but it does not represent a mixture of
these end members.
• Rich in hydrogen and low in carbon, this kerogen can generate oil or gas with progressive heating and maturation.
• Compared to Type 1, it has relatively high H/C, and low O/C ratios, and contains more oxygen-containing
compounds than Type I.
• Certain depositional environments promote increased incorporation of sulfur compounds, resulting in a variation
known as Type II-S kerogen
• This type of kerogen is the most common source of oil

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TYPES OF KEROGEN

Type III Kerogen

• Type III kerogen is derived primarily from terrigenous plant debris, which has been deposited in
shallow to deep marine or nonmarine environments.
• Type III kerogen has lower H/C ratio, and a high initial O/C ratio than Types I or II;
• consequently, it tends to generate dry gas.
• In maturing, this kerogen generates abundant water, CO2 and methane (CH4).
• Most coals have a composition and structure similar to Type III kerogens.
• Coal generates mostly gas but some coals may also generate some oil

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TYPES OF KEROGEN

Type IV Kerogen
• Type IV kerogen is derived from residual organic matter found in older sediments that have been
reworked after erosion.
• Prior to final deposition, this kerogen may have been altered by subaerial weathering,
combustion or biologic oxidation in swamps or soils.
• This type of kerogen has high carbon content and is hydrogen poor.
• Considered a form of dead carbon, Type IV kerogen has almost no potential for generating oil or
gas.

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Migration

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MIGRATION - PRINCIPLE

• Migration of hydrocarbons is a little-understood but critical process of the petroleum system.

• It is defined as the movement of petroleum from source rock toward a reservoir or seep. 
• Rate of petroleum migration is influenced by:
• Hydrocarbons migrate as a separate phase, primarily due to buoyancy. This force causes them to
move vertically at geologically rapid rates.
• Hydrocarbons migrate from a position of higher potential energy to one of lower potential energy.
• Lithologic layers slow or restrict the vertical movement of hydrocarbons. 
• Seals deflect the hydrocarbons laterally up dip through underlying beds to a trap or spill point.
• The properties of reservoirs and carrier beds (dip, relative permeability, etc.) control the rate of
migration and thus the specific direction of the bulk of hydrocarbons under seals

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MIGRATION - PRINCIPLE

Factors Influencing Migration

• Fluid pressure in source rock and extent of existing fractures
• Generation and expulsion rates of hydrocarbons from source rock
• Migration rates are significantly influenced by the capillary forces of the formation which are
dependent on:
• pore-throat size
• oil-water interfacial tension
• reservoir wettability
• Variations of formation fluid properties (density and viscosity)
• Pressure – Temperature conditions

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 MIGRATION - TYPES

• There are 3 categories of migration:

1. Primary migration - is expulsion of petroleum
from fine-grained source rock
2. Secondary migration – movement of
petroleum through a coarse-grained carrier
bed or fault to a reservoir or seep from
source rock
3. Tertiary migration - occurs when petroleum
moves from one trap to another or to a seep

A sketch of the three stages of migration: primary migration out of

the source rock and into a trapped reservoir (reservoir 2) or into a
carrier bed (reservoir 1); secondary migration in carrier reservoir 2
and up faults into reservoir 3; and tertiary migration (dissipation)
from reservoir 3 to the surface
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MIGRATION - TYPES

1. Primary Migration
• Kerogen which is a solid compound, potentially load-bearing and capable of transmitting stress before it
generates petroleum, is able to transform into fluid phases once matured
• If the fluids are not expelled immediately, this process increases the volume of the fluid phase (porosity)
compared to the original volume of the solid phase in the source rock
• Maturation of kerogen could also lead to the occurrence of overpressure in the formation that could exceed its
fracture pressure, thereby fracturing the formation and creating pathways for the movement of hydrocarbons.
• Source rocks may include thin layers of siltstones or sandstones that can serve as pathways for the migration of
the petroleum fluids generated from the kerogen
• Layers of source rock with 10% TOC by weight make up about 20% of the volume. If the water content of the
source rock is 10%, maturation and fluidisation of 50% of the kerogen would increase the fluid content (porosity)
by 100% if expulsion did not occur.
• The excess fluid must therefore be expelled during maturation because a shale with such high porosity
would compact mechanically and thus squeeze the oil out.
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• The primary migration is then controlled by the rate of petroleum generation
MIGRATION - TYPES

2. Secondary Migration
• The flow of petroleum from source rock to reservoir rocks is called secondary migration and must be understood in
terms of two-phase and in some cases three-phase flow. The relative permeability for oil or gas is then critical.
• At low oil or gas saturation the hydrocarbons will only occur as small droplets in the water, which will not flow
because of the capillary resistance and the fact that the buoyancy effect will be very weak.
• Once the primary expulsion from the source rock has been achieved, the oil and gas phases will flow upwards
driven by buoyancy, along pathways where the petroleum is concentrated.
• In this way high oil saturation can be attained locally, increasing the relative permeability.
• Secondary migration requires that a continuous pathway with high petroleum saturation is established; where flow
is prevented by high capillary entry pressure or low permeability, petroleum may be trapped in both small and
large scale dead ends (micro-traps)
• When oil or gas flows upwards and accumulates in traps, it is normally not accompanied by water flow.
• The trap is in a way a hydrodynamic “dead end”, essentially because of the low permeability of the cap rock, unless
this has fractured. As an oil or gas lag starts to accumulate near the top of the structure, the permeability with
33
respect to water flow is reduced further.
MIGRATION - TYPES

2. Secondary Migration – Driving Forces

• Migration of both oil and gas takes place mostly as a separate phase and the driving force is the buoyancy of the
hydrocarbon phase in water
• The buoyancy force (F1) is F1 = (ρw - ρo) H
• where H is the height of the continuous petroleum column, ρw is the density of water 1.0 -1.2 g/cm3 and ρo is the
density of petroleum 0.5 – 1.0 g/cm3
• Reduction in overburden pressure due to uplift and erosion may bring large volumes of gas out of solution in the
water or oil phase, to form separate gas accumulations. This gas may then fill the structures and displace the oil
out of the traps so that oil migrates up to the surface or into a shallower trap
• It is the pressure difference which overcomes the capillary forces resisting the migration of oil and gas.
• In water-wet sandstone, water is drawn in (imbibed) to replace oil if the oil saturation is too high, and the excess
pressure in the petroleum phase helps to resist that. Most sandstones are water-wet in contact with normal oil
and gas but the wetting angle may vary.
• Migration takes place along pathways with the lowest capillary entry pressures. These are in most cases
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sandstones or open fracture.
MIGRATION - TYPES

2. Secondary Migration: Factors restricting migration

• The capillary forces depend on the surface properties of the grains in relation to the fluids.
F2 = (2γ cos φ)/R
Where F2 is the capillary resistant force in water wet conditions, γ is the interfacial tension between petroleum and
water, φ is the wetting angle and R is the radius of the pore throats between the pores which the petroleum has to pass
• The interfacial tension between gas and water may vary from 30 to 70 dynes/cm whereas for oil the range is 5–35
dynes/cm (Schowalter 1979).
• The capillary force (F2) resisting petroleum migration is therefore higher for gas than oil, but the buoyancy force (F1)
is also higher because of the lower density of gas
• Migration depends on the size of the pore throats along a continuous pathway for oil migration. The
smallest pore throats are therefore critical for the migration, not the radius of the pores themselves

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MIGRATION - TYPES

3. Tertiary Migration
• Tertiary migration includes leakage, seepage, dissipation, and alteration of petroleum as it reaches the Earth's surface.
• The products of seepage may be gas chimneys in the shallow sediments, as hydrate layers and mounds, cemented pock
marks and mud volcanoes, effects on vegetation and live oil, and gas seepage at the surface
• The physical processes that drive tertiary migration are the same as those that operate during secondary migration
(Buoyancy drives the petroleum to the surface).
• This may be helped or hindered by overpressure gradients or hydrodynamics. Perhaps the only major difference that
can be used to separate tertiary migration from secondary migration is the rate of petroleum supply.
• Trap failure, through capillary leakage, hydraulic fracture, or tectonism, supplies petroleum into a new carrier system
much more rapidly than does a maturing source rock.
• The direction of tertiary migration can be vertical, horizontal, or some combination of both
• Vertical migration is promoted by the presence of thick mudstones, rapid deposition (causing high overpressures), and a paucity
of extensive dipping carrier beds (sandstones or carbonates)
• Tilted sandstone and carbonate beds will promote lateral migration and focusing of petroleum. This in turn will lead to seepage
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over much more restricted areas, as the petroleum breaks out of a carrier bed rather than seeping pervasively through a seal
Traps

37
TRAPS

• Traps consist of porous reservoir rocks overlain by tight (low permeability) rocks which do not allow oil or gas
to pass
• The cap rock may not be 100% effective in preventing the upward flow of hydrocarbons, but these will still
accumulate if the rate of leakage is less than the rate of supply up to the trap.
• Cap rocks are usually not totally impermeable with respect to water, but may be impermeable to oil and gas
due to capillary resistance in the small pores
• About 80 percent of the world’s petroleum has been found in anticlinal traps

• Types of Traps
1. Structural
2. Stratigraphic
3. Hydrodynamic
4. Combination

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TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

• Structural traps that are formed by structural deformation (folding, doming or faulting) of
rocks
• Structural traps may be generated through tectonic, diapiric, compactional, and
gravitational processes
• Structural traps are created by the syn to post-despositional deformation of strata into a
geometery (structure) that permits the accumulation of hydrocarbons in the subsurface

39
TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

1. Anticlinal Dome
• Domes formed by diapirism or other processes
may form closures in all directions (four-way
closure)
• A simple anticline is not sufficient to trap oil.
• Anticlines with an axial culmination are needed
to provide four-way closure. This means that
the fold axis must be dipping in both directions
• Anticlinal traps can form in association with
faulting. This is especially true in connection
with growth faults (roll-overs) but also with
thrust zones

40
TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

2. Salt Dome
• Salt domes are formed because salt (specific gravity c.1.8–2.0) is lighter than the overlying rock, and
the salt therefore “floats” up due to buoyancy.
• The quantitatively most important salt minerals are
• halite (NaCl –density 2.16 g/cm3)
• gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O – density2.32 g/cm3)
• Anhydrite (CaSO4 – density 2.96 g/cm3) is too dense to contribute to the formation of diapers.
• In order for the salt to move upwards and form a salt dome, a certain thickness of overburden is
required and the salt beds themselves must be at least 100–200 m thick.
• The upward movement of salt through the overlying sequence, and the resultant deformation of the
latter, is called halokinetics or salt tectonics

41
 TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

2 Salt Dome
• Salt dome traps may exists primarily as the lateral seal of a trap form
against a salt diapir and a compactional drape trap over the diapir
crest as outlined below:
1. In the layers above the salt dome
2. In the top of the salt dome (cap rock)
3. The beds which are faulted and turned up against
the salt structure
4. Through stratigraphic pinching out of beds round the salt dome
• Salt traps exists in many locations
• The Permian Zechstein salt in Germany and Denmark continues
below the North Sea, and halotectonic movements have formed
dome structures in the Chalk, for example in the Ekofisk area
• Salt deposits are particularly common in the PermoTriassic
around the Atlantic. 42
 TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

3. Diapiric Mudstone
• A trap associated with diapiric mudstone, with a lateral
seal against the mud-wall.

• Traps associated with diapiric mud share many features

in common with those associated with salt.

• In the diagram shown, the diapiric mud-wall developed

at the core of a compressional fold

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 TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

4. Growth Anticline / Dome

• These are dome-like structures formed when part of a basin subsides more slowly than its
surroundings, resulting in least sedimentation on the highest part.
• The sediment thickness decreases towards the dome centre, which also compacts less than the
adjacent thicker sediments and thus contributes to the formation of an anticlinal structure.
• Growth anticlines form contemporaneously with sediment accumulation, not through later folding.
• Growth anticlines can be formed above salt domes, reefs or buried basement highs, through
differential compaction.

44
 TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

5. Rollover anticline on a thrust

• Rollover Anticlines are syn-depositional structures
developed at the downthrown sides of growth faults
• They are formed when sedimentation along growth faults
cause rotation and grow concurrently with growth faults
• Petroleum accumulations may occur on both the hanging
wall and the footwall.
• The hanging-wall accumulation is dependent upon sub-
thrust fault seal, whereas at least part of the hanging-wall
trap is likely to be a simple four-way dip-closed structure
• Typical in Niger Delta and Mississippi Delta
 TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

6. Fault Traps
• In fault traps, the fault plane forms part of the structure trapping the oil and hindering its further
upward migration.
• The fault plane must therefore be sealing for vertical flow in order to function as a barrier and a
cap rock for the reservoir rocks.
• If the reservoir rock is juxtaposed against a sandstone or other permeable rocks the fault must
also be impermeable for flow across the fault plane.
• Most frequently, however, the reservoir rock is faulted against a tight shale or mudrock and the
fault is then in most cases sealing.
• The displacement along faults can be both vertical (normal faults) and horizontal (strike slip
faults)
TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

6. Fault Traps
• There are three common fault – petroleum pool associations:
I. The fault itself makes the trap without an ancillary trapping mechanism such as a fold —normal faults
are the most common examples.

II. The fault creates another structure (e.g., a fold or horst) that in turn forms the main trap. 

III. The fault may be a consequence of another structure that forms the main trap — e.g., the extensional
crestal faults that form above some anticlines.
TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

6. Fault Traps
• There are 4 major fault trap types:

1. Normal
• Tilted fault blocks in an extensional
regime that
• The seals are overlying mudstones and
cross-fault juxtaposition against
mudstones
2. Reverse
• Commonly associated with compressional
tectonics
 TRAPS - STRUCTURAL

6. Fault Traps
3. Strike-slip
• These may not be sealed due to incremental movements,
but basement-controlled strike-slip faults commonly
produce good anticlinal structures in overlying softer
sediments.
4. Growth
• Form in sediments that are deposited rapidly (deltas)
• Faulting occurs during sedimentation resulting in equivalent
strata on the downthrow side being thicker than on the
upthrow side.
• Minor fault planes with an opposite throw (antithetic faults)
may also form in the strata that curve inward towards the
main fault plane. Growth fault trap
TRAPS - STRATIGRAPHIC

• Stratigraphic traps which are related to primary features in the sedimentary sequences and do
not require structural deformation like faulting or folding.
• Stratigraphic traps, sometimes referred to as subtle traps, are formed by lithological variations
imparted to a sediment at deposition or generated subsequently by alteration of the sediment or
fluid through diagenesis
• This may be sandstones pinching out in shales due to primary changes in facies
• Carbonate reefs tend to form primary structures which function as stratigraphic traps

50
 TRAPS - STRATIGRAPHIC

1. Primary stratigraphic traps

• Result from variations in lateral depositional changes
(facies change and pinchouts) and those created by
buried depositional relief
• These include features such as lenses, pinch-outs, and
appropriate facies changes.
• Examples include:
• Primary pinch out of strata, e.g., strata that pinch
out updip in less permeable rocks such as shale
• Fluvial channels of sandstone that are isolated
and surrounded by impermeable clay-rich
sediments
• Submarine channels and sandstone turbidites in
strata rich in shale
• Porous reefs that are surrounded by shale, etc.
Examples of stratigraphic traps. 51
 TRAPS - STRATIGRAPHIC

2. Secondary stratigraphic traps

• Result from variations that developed after
sedimentation, mainly because of diagenesis.
• These include variations due to porosity
enhancement by dissolution or loss by
cementation.
• Mineral cements, asphalt, permafrost
and gas hydrates are the main agents
responsible for forming seals in this trap
• Dolomitization of limited-permeability
limestone and dissolution of framework
matrix are the main means of enhancing
reservoir quality

52
TRAPS - HYDRODYNAMIC

• Hydrodynamic traps are caused by differences in water

pressures associated with water flow, which creates tilt on
the contacts between hydrocarbons and water.
• Consequently, the fluid contacts in hydrodynamic traps do
not correspond directly to structural maps of the reservoir.
• If porewater flow in a sedimentary basin is strong enough,
the oil-water contact may deviate from the horizontal
because of the hydrodynamic shear stress that is set up.
• In some cases, oil may accumulate without closure.
• Flow of fresh (meteoric) water down through oil-bearing
rocks commonly results in biodegradation of the oil and
formation of asphalt, which may then form a cap rock for
oil
• They are favored in, but not exclusive to, foreland basins. 53
COMBINATION TRAPS

• Combination traps are traps with two or more

trapping elements
• Common trapping elements include
combinations of structure and lithology.
• A stratigraphic element may be the cause for
the permeability of a reservoir rock.
• A structural element caused by deformation
may combine with the stratigraphic element to
give rise to a trap.
• Additionally, the down-dip flow of formation
water may increase the trapping effects. A sketch section showing the common types of petroleum traps
associated with salt domes. 1, An anticlinal drape over a dome; 2, a
• A great variety of traps, which are graben fault trap over a dome; 3, porous cap rock; 4, a flank pinchout and
combinations of structural &stratigraphic traps, sandstone lens; 5, a trap beneath an overhang; 6, a trap uplifted and
buttressed against a salt diapir; 7, an unconformity; 8, a fault trap
is associated with intrusion of deep- seated downthrown away from a dome/diapir; 9, a fault trap downthrown toward
rocks into overlying sediments. a dome/diapir.
54
HYDROCARBON SEEPS

• A petroleum seep is a place where natural liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons escape to the earth's atmosphere
and surface, normally under low pressure or flow.
• Seeps generally occur above either terrestrial or offshore petroleum accumulation structures
• Hydrocarbon seeps may be seen as a seismic anomaly, especially in the case of gas seeps due to the
scattering, attenuation and decrease in velocity of compressional waves (P-waves) passing through the gas-
effected zone
• Seeps could be recognized in the subsurface on seismic by the following characteristics:
1. Production of pockmarks small (depression) or craters (larger depressions) at the seabed and just
beneath it
2. wipe-out zone (acoustic blanking) for larger gas seepage,
3. vertical dimmed zone
4. high amplitude (bright spot/flat spot) at the top of the seepages
5. low continuity reflector within the effected zone
6. chaotic reflection pattern with sand-paper look
7. local depression or time-sag (push down effect)
55
 HYDROCARBON SEEPS
Seismic expression of vertical-wipe out zone caused by
gas-pipe as seen on the cross section in the deeper
part of the seismic. These gas-pipes look like circular
depression on the time slice, which had gave a
permanent disturbance in the rock formations
A) Labelling of Gas seepages (1-10) observed on the seismic data used in this study with Seepage-
1 being the largest seepage and blanking the area of about 10-15km wide and 8.0km deep. A
major fault is interpreted to be responsible for the migration of the gas from deeper reservoir
based on the notable displacements of the horizons. Seepage 2-10 are randomly distribute all
over the seismic section particularly on the shallow part of the data with some interactions with
faults. B) Zoomed Section from Figure 1A (rectangle) summarized the characteristics of gas
seepage on seismic data. i: High Amplitude (Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator (DHI)) at top of the
seepage; ii: Chaotic, blurry with sand papery look that dimmed the reflection; iii: Time-sag (push
down effect); iv: Acoustic Blanking (vertical wipe-out zone). C) Shallow section of the data,
viewed on original amplitude and variance attributes. Variance attribute can clearly locate the
location of the faults and gas seepages associated with it. 56