Chapter 2:

Sampling and Sampling Methods

Learning Objectives
 Explain the role of sampling in the
research process
 Distinguish between probability and

nonprobability sampling
 Understand the factors to consider

when determining sample size

 Understand the steps in developing a

sampling plan
Sampling

Sampling is the process

of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups
Basic Principles of Sampling

Theory of sampling is based on the following laws-

• Law of Statistical Regularity – This law comes from the mathematical
theory of probability. Law of Statistical Regularity says that a moderately
large number of the items chosen at random from the large group are
almost sure on the average to possess the features of the large group.”
According to this law the units of the sample must be selected at random.
• Law of Inertia of Large Numbers – According to this law, the other
things being equal – the larger the size of the sample; the more accurate
the results are likely to be.
Characteristics of the sampling technique
1. Much cheaper.
2. Saves time.
3. Much reliable.
4. Very suitable for carrying out different surveys.
5. Scientific in nature.
Advantages of sampling
1. Very accurate.
2. Economical in nature.
3. Very reliable.
4. High suitability ratio towards the different surveys.
5. Takes less time.
6. In cases, when the universe is very large, then the sampling method is the
only practical method for collecting the data.
Disadvantages of sampling
1. Inadequacy of the samples.
2. Chances for bias.
3. Problems of accuracy.
4. Difficulty of getting the representative sample.
5. Untrained manpower.
6. Absence of the informants.
7. Chances of committing the errors in sampling.
Census
Basics of Sampling Theory

Population

Element

Defined target
population

Sampling unit

Sampling frame
Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling

• Population: the entire group under study as

defined by research objectives. Sometimes
called the “universe.”

Researchers define populations in specific terms

such as heads of households, individual person
types, families, types of retail outlets, etc.
Population geographic location and time of study
are also considered.
Defining Population of Interest

 Population of interest is entirely dependent

on Management Problem, Research Problems,
and Research Design.
 Some Bases for Defining Population:

◦ Geographic Area
◦ Demographics
◦ Usage/Lifestyle
◦ Awareness
 Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling

• Sample: a subset of the population that should

represent the entire group
• Sample unit: the basic level of investigation…
consumers, store managers, shelf-facings, teens,
etc. The research objective should define the
sample unit
• Census: an accounting of the complete
population
Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias

that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size
Sampling Frame
 A list of population elements (people,
companies, houses, cities, etc.) from which
units to be sampled can be selected.
 Difficult to get an accurate list.
 Sample frame error occurs when certain
elements of the population are accidentally
omitted or not included on the list.
Basic Concepts in Samples & Sampling…cont.

Sample frame error (SFE): the degree to

which the sample frame fails to
account for all of the defined units in
the population (e.g. a telephone book
listing does not contain unlisted
numbers) leading to sampling frame
error.
Basic Concepts in Samples & Sampling…cont.

• Calculating sample frame error (SFE):

Subtract the number of items on the sampling list
from the total number of items in the population.
Take this number and divide it by the total
population. Multiply this decimal by 100 to
convert to percent (SFE must be expressed in %)
If the SFE was 40% this would mean that 40% of the
population was not in the sampling frame
Reasons for Taking a Sample

• Practical considerations such as cost and

population size
• Inability of researcher to analyze large quantities
of data potentially generated by a census
• Samples can produce sound results if proper
rules are followed for the draw
Developing a Sampling Plan

1. Define the Population of Interest

2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan
Sampling Methods

Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
 Simple random  Convenience

sampling sampling
 Systematic random  Judgment sampling

sampling  Quota sampling

 Stratified random  Snowball sampling
sampling
 Cluster sampling
Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a method of

probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected
Probability Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling

• Blind Draw Method (e.g. names “placed

in a hat” and then drawn randomly)
• Random Numbers Method (all items in
the sampling frame given numbers,
numbers then drawn using table or
computer program)
Advantages
• Known and equal chance of selection
• Easy method when there is an
electronic database
Probability Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling

Disadvantages
• Complete accounting of population
needed
• Cumbersome to provide unique
designations to every population
member
• Very inefficient when applied to skewed
population distribution
Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling is a method of

probability sampling in which the defined target
population is ordered and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
Steps in Drawing a Systematic
Random Sample
 1: Obtain a list of units that contains an
acceptable frame of the target population(N)
 2: Determine the number of units in the list
and the desired sample size(n)
 3: Compute the skip interval
 4: Determine a random start point
 5: Beginning at the start point, select the
units by choosing each unit that
corresponds to the skip interval
Example
 Suppose we wish to check if the metro rail
is running on time or not. From a total of
80 trains, suppose we want to sample 10
trains.
 k = n/N = 10/80 = 1/8
 So, trains are arranged in groups of 8.
 A train from 1 to 8 is then selected at
random. Suppose it is 2nd.
 This means we select 2nd train and every 8th
train thereafter.
 Thus, the trains selected are
2,10,18,26,34,42,50,58,66,74th
Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a method of

probability sampling in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples are selected
from each
Stratified Random Sampling
 The population is first divided into groups of elements
called strata which are homogeneous within themselves
and heterogeneous among themselves
 A simple random sample is chosen from each strata such
that the strata is homogeneous within themselves and
heterogeneous among themselves. Each group is called
stratum.
 This process of dividing heterogeneous population into
relatively homogeneous groups is called stratification.
 So, the entire population of size N is divided into strata of
sizes N1,N2……..Nk.
N = N1+N2+…………+Nk

 To select a random sample of size n, we choose by simple

random sampling n1 units from the first strata ….nk from
kth strata such that
n = n1+n2+………………..nk
 Suppose a market researcher is doing a survey on a new
mobile phone, which has just been launched in the market.
They want the sample to represent all age groups.
 For this, they may stratify the population into different age
groups.
 The strata might be 15 yrs-25 yrs, 26yrs-35yrs, 36-45yrs.
 Then simple random samples may be drawn from each of
these three strata.
 Each of these samples will be representative of the strata they
are drawn from.
 Suppose in a population, 75% are
matriculates, 15% are graduates and 10% are
post graduates and a researcher is interested
in selecting a sample of size 1000.
 In proportionate stratified sampling, we need

to have 750 matriculates, 150 graduates and

100 PG.
 In disproportionate stratified sampling, we

can choose any sample, say, 600

matriculates, 200 graduates and 200 PG.
Here, sample taken from each stratum is
disproportionate to the actual % of the
Probability Sampling Methods
Stratified Sampling Method

 This method is used when the population

distribution of items is skewed. It allows us to
draw a more representative sample. Hence if
there are more of certain type of item in the
population the sample has more of this type
and if there are fewer of another type, there are
fewer in the sample.
Probability Sampling Methods
Stratified Sampling

• Advantage:
• More accurate overall sample of skewed
population…see next slide for WHY
• Disadvantage:
• More complex sampling plan requiring
different sample sizes for each stratum
Why is Stratified Sampling more accurate
when there are skewed populations?

The less the variance in a group, the smaller the

sample size it takes to produce a precise answer.
Why? If 99% of the population (low variance)
agreed on the choice of brand A, it would be easy
to make a precise estimate that the population
preferred brand A even with a small sample size.
But, if 33% chose brand A, and 23% chose B, and
so on (high variance) it would be difficult to make
a precise estimate of the population’s preferred
brand…it would take a larger sample size….
Probability Sampling Methods
Cluster Sampling

• Cluster sampling: method by which the

population is divided into groups (clusters), any
of which can be considered a representative
sample. These clusters are mini-populations and
therefore are heterogeneous. Once clusters are
established a random draw is done to select one
(or more) clusters to represent the population.
Area and systematic sampling (discussed earlier)
are two common methods.
• Area sampling
 Example : to study the average household
income in say Maharashtra, clusters could
be the various districts.
◦ A sample of districts is first selected.
◦ Then, households are again randomly chosen from
the selected districts.
Probability Sampling Methods
Cluster Sampling

• Advantages
• Economic efficiency … faster and less
expensive than SRS
• Does not require a list of all members of the
universe

• Disadvantage:
• Cluster specification error…the more
homogeneous the cluster chosen, the more
imprecise the sample results
Multistage sampling
 Consists of selecting a sample in a series of
steps by dividing the population into several
successive stages.
 Example : consider a survey to determine the

reading habits for school children.

◦ 1st stage units – sample of cities.
◦ 2nd stage units – schools in each city
◦ 3rd stage units – classes in each school
◦ 4th stage units – children in each class
Non-random (non prob)Sample
 Sampling technique where selection of the sample
is not based on a random selection process is
called a non-random sampling technique.
 For example, when you use elements most
available, like in self-selecting surveys or street
interviews
 In the case of a non probability sample you should
not draw conclusions about the whole population
Nonprobability Sampling Methods

Convenience sampling relies

upon convenience and access

Judgment sampling relies upon belief

that participants fit characteristics

Quota sampling emphasizes representation

of specific characteristics

Snowball sampling relies upon respondent

referrals of others with like characteristics
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Convenience Sampling Method

• Convenience samples: samples drawn at the

convenience of the interviewer. People tend to
make the selection at familiar locations and to
choose respondents who are like themselves.
• Error occurs 1) in the form of members of the
population who are infrequent or nonusers of
that location and 2) who are not typical in the
population
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Judgment Sampling Method

• Judgment samples: samples that require a

judgment or an “educated guess” on the part of
the interviewer as to who should represent the
population. Also, “judges” (informed individuals)
may be asked to suggest who should be in the
sample.
• Subjectivity enters in here, and certain
members of the population will have a smaller
or no chance of selection compared to others
Nonprobabilty Sampling Methods
Referral and Quota Sampling Methods

• Referral samples (snowball samples): samples which

require respondents to provide the names of
additional respondents
• Members of the population who are less known,
disliked, or whose opinions conflict with the
respondent have a low probability of being
selected.
• Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of
certain types of individuals to be interviewed
• Often used to ensure that convenience samples
will have desired proportion of different
respondent classes
Developing a Sample Plan

• Sample plan: definite sequence of steps that the

researcher goes through in order to draw and
ultimately arrive at the final sample
Developing a Sample Plan
Six steps

• Step 1: Define the relevant population.

• Specify the descriptors, geographic
locations, and time for the sampling
units.
• Step 2: Obtain a population list, if possible;
may only be some type of sample
frame
• List brokers, government units,
customer lists, competitors’ lists,
association lists, directories, etc.
Developing a Sample Plan
Six steps

• Step 2 (concluded):
• Incidence rate (occurrence of certain
types in the population, the lower the
incidence the larger the required list
needed to draw sample from)
Developing a Sample Plan
Six steps …continued

• Step 3: Design the sample method (size and

method).
• Determine specific sampling method
to be used. All necessary steps must
be specified (sample frame, n, …
recontacts, and replacements)
• Step 4: Draw the sample.
• Select the sample unit and gain the
information
Developing a Sample Plan
Six steps…concluded

• Step 4 (Continued):
• Drop-down substitution
• Oversampling
• Resampling
• Step 5: Assess the sample.
• Sample validation – compare sample
profile with population profile; check
non-responders
• Step 6: Resample if necessary.
Determining Sample Size
 How many completed questionnaires do we
need to have a representative sample?
 Generally the larger the better, but that takes

more time and money.

 Answer depends on:

◦ How different or dispersed the population is.

◦ Desired level of confidence.
◦ Desired degree of accuracy.
Common Methods for Determining
Sample Size
 Common Methods:
◦ Budget/time available
◦ Executive decision
◦ Statistical methods
◦ Historical data/guidelines
 See Table
 Sampling Errors
 Inaccuracies in the chosen sample
 It is the difference b/w the estimate

obtained from sampling and the true

value for the entire population
 It tends to decrease as the sample size

increases.
 Non – sampling error: these are not due

to sampling but due to

◦ Response error
◦ Non response error
◦ Compiling error and publication error
 Sampling Errors (contd.)
 Total error = Sampling error + Non-
sampling error (pop.)

S a m p lin g E r r o r ( S t d . D e v = c o n s t a n t )
Formula:
1 .8 0
SE = /n 1 .6 0
1 .4 0
where
1 .2 0

n = Sample Size & 1 .0 0

Sampling Error

0 .8 0
s = Pop. Std. Dev. 0 .6 0

As n  ,
0 .4 0
0 .2 0

SE  0 0 .0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
S a m p le S iz e