Developmental Biology / Reproduction in plants

(3+1+1=5)

PRESENTED BY

GANESH JOSHI (M.Sc. Botany, T.U.)

(RA: TUCH / KATH)

Faculty of Science & Technology

Department of Botany, SWSC
Kathmandu, Nepal

2019
 Some important questions of this chapter
1. What do you mean by double fertilization and triple fusion
in angiosperms? Explain.
2. What is asexual reproduction? How does it differs with
sexual reproduction in plants?
3. Highlight the advantage & disadvantage of cross pollination.
4. Comments on dicot and monocot embryo with diagram.
5. What is grafting? Write its types.

6. Write note on Anther, Synergid cells, Antipodal cells.

7. What is fertilization? Discuss its mechanism.
8. What is Gootee? Discuss.
9. Draw a well labeled diagram of male & female gametophyte.
10. Differentiate between self & cross pollination mechanism.
 Reproduction in Plants
• Reproduction is the most important & essential features of
the living organisms.
• The process of production of new individuals similar in form
to the parent organism is called reproduction.

• Angiosperms mostly reproduces by 2 methods;

• 1.) Asexual reproduction
• 2.) Sexual reproduction

• 1.) Asexual reproduction: The reproduction in which new

individuals are produced from single parent without formation
of gametes is called asexual / vegetative reproduction.
 Reproduction in Plants…
• Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual reproduction in
which new individuals are produced from root, stem & leaves.

• Vegetative propagation takes place by 2 methods-

• 1.) Natural vegetative propagation (reproduction)
• 2.) Artificial (induced) vegetative propagation

• 1.) Natural vegetative propagation takes place as follows;

• Vegetative propagation by Roots: Modified tuberous roots

such as Sweet potato, Asparagus gives new plants from roots.
 Reproduction in Plants…

Tuberous root of Sweet Potato Roots of Asparagus racemosus

 Reproduction in plants…
• Vegetative propagation by stem takes place as follows;
• Tuber: The underground modified stem forms swollen,
rounded structures called tuber stem. Tuber has many eyes on
stem, from where new shoot arises. Eg. Potato tuber.

• Rhizome: It is thick, fleshy underground stem which grows

horizontally. It has node & internodes with buds. Eg. Ginger.

• Bulb: The reduced underground stem with auxiliary buds

which is covered with scale leaves is called bulb. Eg. Onion

• Corm: It is short, fleshy underground stem with brown

scales & buds on outer surface. Eg. Colocasia
 Reproduction in plants……

Potato Tuber : Underground stem

Rhizome: Underground stem

Bulb : Underground stem Corm : Underground stem

 Reproduction in plants……
• Vegetative propagation by sub-aerial stem takes place as
follows;
• Runner: The stem grows horizontally along the soil surface &
gives new buds from nodes. Eg. Dubo grass

• Sucker: A shoot arises from underground root or stem. Eg.

Chrysanthemum sp.

• Offset: a horizontal short, thick leaves on hydrophytic plants.

Eg. Water littuce

 Vegetative propagation takes place by adventitious buds

produced on leaves. Eg. Bryophyllum
Reproduction in plants….

Fig.: Leaf of Bryophyllum: Reproduction by leaf.

 Reproduction in plants….
• 2.) Artificial vegetative propagation takes place as follows;
• A) Stem cutting: This is most common method of vegetative
reproduction in horticulture & ornamental plants.
• 1 year old stem about 20-30 cm long stem are cut and
planted vertically on moist soil & after few days roots / shoot
arises.

• B) Layering: The development of roots on a stem when it is

still intact with the parent plant is called layering.

i.) Mount layering

 Reproduction in plants…
• ii.) Gootee (Air layering): It is an air layering method of
vegetative propagation.
• In this method, thick bark of stem is removed and rooting
hormones are placed at the cut end.
• Than, cutting end is covered with grafting clay & plastic.
• After some times roots arises from cut portion.
• Finally, the branch is cut from mother plant & planted on soil.
 Reproduction in plants….
• C) Grafting: It is a technique of transplanting a part of one
plant over the cut branch another suitable plant.
• It is carried out between two closely related varieties.
• The part of plant that is grafted on is called the Scion and the
supporting portion (base part) is called Stock.

• The stem of plant is cut 20-30 cm above the ground level.

• The grafting end of both (stock & scion) are cut obliquely, so
as to fit properly (should be touch with outer layer).
• Than, grafting portion should be air tight with Vaseline,
grafting clay, plastic & thread.
• This grafting is not possible in monocot stem because absence
of cambium layer.
Reproduction in plants: Grafting

Grafting
 Reproduction in plants….

• Grafting can be done by:

• Tongue grafting
• Wedge grafting
• Side grafting
• Crown grafting
• Approach grafting
• Budding
Reproduction in plants….
Reproduction in plants….
 Advantages of vegetative propagation
 Following are major advantages of vegetative propagation;

• The individuals produced from vegetative propagation will be

exactly same to the parents.
• Many individuals produced from single plant.
• Many commercial plants can be propagated by this method.
Example: Rose, Apple, Peach, Pear etc.

• Such plants gain maturity within short time.

• This is useful for the production of disease free plants.
• It is easier, quicker and less expensive method of
propagation.
• This method is more effective in horticulture.
 2. Sexual reproduction in plants
• Fusion of male gamete (pollen) & female gamete (egg cell) is
called sexual reproduction.

• In angiosperms, male reproductive organ is anther and female

reproductive organ is called carpel (gynocium).

• Anther contains many powdery pollen grains (n) which are

fertilizes with egg cell (n) in the ovary and zygote (2n) is
formed.

• This zygote divide & re-divide, embryo is formed.

 2. Sexual reproduction in plants…
Angiospermic plants produces two kinds of gametes;
• 1.) Male Gametes: Formation of male gametes within anther
an anther is called micro-gametogenesis / Male gametophyte.
• The mature anther shows following structures;

• Epidermis is the outermost layer of sporangium. It is followed

by 2-3 layered endothecium and single layered tapetum.

• Tapetum forms the innermost layer of sporangium wall

which encloses many pollen grains.

• Pollen grain has 2 layers called exine and intine. By the

germination of Pollen grains, it produces male gametophyte.
2. Sexual reproduction in plants…
 Development of male gametophyte
• Germination of the pollen grain starts within the pollen sac.
• Nucleus of pollen grain (microspore) divides in to vegetative
cell and generative cell.
• Pollen grain transfer to the stigma in this 2- celled stage.
• Vegetative cell remains undivided while generative divides into
2-male gametes and 1tube nucleus.

• This 3 - celled condition

(2 male nucleus & 1 tube nucleus)
forms male gametophyte.
Development of Female gametophyte (embryo sac)
• Formation of female gamete (egg cell) in the ovule is called
female gametophyte.
• Ovule develops in the ovary.

• Short stalk of ovule is called Funicle.

• The ovule has anterior opening called micropylar end (that
provide passage for pollen in to egg cell).

• The region of ovule where funicle remains attached is called

Chalazal end.

• Megaspore represent the first stage of female gametophyte.

• Altogether, 4 megaspores are formed in the carpel BUT only
one megaspore is functional.
Development of Female gametophyte (embryo sac)
Development of Female gametophyte (embryo sac)

Note: Each ovule consists of 2 lateral synergid cells and an central egg cell
in the micropylar end while 3-antipodal cells in the chalazal end.
 Pollination
• Pollination: Transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma is
called pollination. Pollination occurs by 2 methods;

• A.) Self pollination (Autogamy): Transfer of pollen grain

from anther to the stigma of same plant or stigma of another
flower on same plant is called self pollination.

(Autogamy / Homogamy)

(Geitonogmy)
 Self pollination

• Self pollination is of 3 types;

• Homogamy / Autogamy: Transfer of pollen grain from anther
to the stigma of same flower.

• Clestogamy (Cleistes- closed): This types of self pollination

takes place in such flowers which remains permanently
closed.

• Geitonogamy: Transfer of pollen grain from one flower to the

stigma of different flower of same plant.
 Pollination
• B.) Cross Pollination: The transfer of pollen from anther of
a flower to the stigma of another flower of different plant
is called cross pollination.
• Depending on pollinating agents, cross-pollination is as;
• 1. Anaemophily (Gr. Anaemo- air): Pollination takes place
by air. In this case, pollen grains are small, many, powdery,
and light so, pollen grains are transfer to the stigma by wind.

• 2. Entomophily (Gr. Enton- insect): Pollination caused by

insects. Flowers of such plants are large, colorful, attractive,
with nectar so that flower attracts many insect on flower and
the insects transfer the pollen grains to the different flower.
• Pollen grains are sticky nature in insect pollinated plants.
 Pollination

Cross pollination by insects: Entomophylous pollination

 Pollination
• 3. Zoophily (Gr. Zoon- animals): Transfer of pollen grains with
the help of animals. Types of Zoophily are-

• i.) Ornithophily: Pollination takes place by small birds.

• ii.) Chiropterophily: Pollination takes place by bat.
• iii.) Malacophily: Pollination takes place by snails.

• 4. Hydrophily: Transfer of pollen with the help of water

currents in aquatic plants is called Hydrophilous pollination.

• Flowers pollinated by water are small, without any smell, &

stigmas are un-wettable. Eg. Vallisneria, Hydrilla etc.

Q. Differentiate between self pollination & cross pollination.

Q.1} What are advantages / disadvantages of self pollination?

 Advantages of self pollination:

• It does not require external agency for transfer of pollen grain.
• Pollen grains are less wasted.
• Parental characters can be preserved by the self pollination.
• Self pollination doesn’t causes genetic variations.

 Disadvantages of self pollination

• It does not help in evolution of new species.
• Useful characters can not introduced by this method.
• Plants are sensitive towards disease & pests.
• They are less capable for change in environmental conditions.
Q.2} What are advantages / disadvantages of cross pollination?
 Advantages of cross pollination:
• Useful characters can be introduced by the cross pollination.
• It is useful for the production of genetic diversity.
• It is useful for production of disease resistant varieties of crops.
• Such plants increase the adaptability with environment.
• It can be utilized in the elimination of undesirable characters.

 Disadvantages of cross pollination:

• These plants fully depends on external sources for pollination.
• A large number of pollen grains are wasted.
• Sometimes it introduces harmful characters on plants.
• Cross pollination is not sure method of pollination.
 Fertilization
 The fusion of male gamete (Pollen) with female gamete
(egg) is called fertilization.

 For the pollination, pollen grains are deposited on the stigma.

Where the pollen wall ruptures and pollen tube formed with 1
tube nucleus and 2 male nuclei.

 Pollen tube grows and finally reaches up to ovule.

 Generally, pollen tube enters in to the ovule through

micropyle end (Porogamy), but sometimes pollen tube enters
through Chalazal end (Chalazogamy) & through the
integuments (Mesogamy).
  Fertilization
 Double fertilization & triple fusion:
  Fertilization
• Long pollen tube penetrate the micropylar end and 1 tube nucleus
fuses with 2 synergid cells and degenerates.

• One of the male nucleus (n) fuses with egg cell (n) and diploid zygote
(2n) is formed. This zygote later divides and re-divide, embryo formed.

• While remaining male gametes (n) fuses with 2 polar nuclei and
triploid nucleus (3n) or endosperm (nutritive tissue) is formed.

• Therefore, fertilization of 1 male gamete with an egg cell and another

with polar nuclei is called “double fertilization”.
• The fusion of another male nucleus with two polar nuclei is called “triple
fusion”.
• Such mechanism of double fertilization & triple fusion is special feature
of angiosperms (Discovered by Nawaschin, 1898).
 Development of dicot embryo
• Diploid zygote divides & re-divides and embryo forms.
• This zygote first time divides in to suspensor & epibasal cell.
• Suspensor cells converting in to hypophysis cells (root forms).
• Epibasal cell divides repeatedly and it forms 2 lobed plumule
(i.e., 2- cotyledons in dicot embryo).
• This embryo further germinates in to new dicot plant on
moist soil.

Fig.: Development of dicot embryo

  Development of monocot embryo
• Zygote divides transverse to form basal cell & terminal cell.
• The basal cell present towards micropylar end converts in to
suspensor (that gives roots).
• And, terminal cell converts in to whole embryo (plumule).
• Single cotyledon (plumule) arises from terminal cell and
embryo further germinates in to new monocot plant on moist
soil.

Fig.: Development of monocot embryo

 Important questions: Revision
1. “Double fertilization & triple fusion is the unique feature
of angiosperms”. Justify with suitable diagram.
2. Draw a well labeled diagram of dicot & monocot embryo.
3. What is approach grafting? Give diagram.
4. Highlight the significance of cross fertilization.
5. What is embryo sac? Give its structure.
………………………………………………………………..
6. Draw a well labeled diagram of male gametophyte (pollen).
7. What is endosperm? Give its function.
8. Differentiate between dicot & monocot embryo.
9. What is hypogeal germination of embryo?
10. Differentiate between self pollination & cross pollination.
 Plant Movement
(1 / 3 marks)
• Plant movement grouped in 2 types:
• A. Growth movement
• B. Turgor movement

• A. Growth movement: This type of growth takes place due to

unequal growth of plant part. Growth movement is of 2 types;
• 1. Autonomic or Spontaneous Movement
• Such type of movement are genetically inherited. Types:

• i) Locomotion Movement: Movement of whole body

materials within cell from one place to another place is termed
as Locomotion movement. Example: Cyclosis,
Chromosomal movement during cell division.
 Plant Movement
• ii) Hyponastic & Epinastic Movement: More growth on
lower surface is called Hyponastic movement (closing).
• For example: Young fern leaves are circinately coiled.

 More growth on upper surface is called epinastic movement

(opening). For example: adult fern leaves are straight.
 Nutation: The spiral movement of plant organs is called
Nutation (Circum).
 Plant Movement
2. Paratonic / Induced Movement: The movement that occurs
due to external stimuli is called induced movement. Types:
• i) Geotropism: The movement of plant organs in response to
land (gravity) is called geotropism.
• Example: Roots are positively geotropic.
• ii) Thigmotropism (Haptotropism): The movement of plant
organs in response to touch (physical contact).
• Example: Tendrils of pea plant coiled around support.
 Plant Movement
• iii) Hydrotropism: The movement of plant organs in response
to water (moisture) is called Hydrotropism.
• Example: Roots grows towards moisture on soil.
• iv) Chemotropism: The movement of plant parts towards
chemical stimulus is called Chemotropism.
• Eg: The pollen tube grows in style due to presence of sugar.
• v) Phototropism (Heliotropism): The movement of plant
organs in response to light is called Phototropism.
• Example: Green shoots bend towards source of light.
 Plant Movement
 Nastic Movement: Movement of plant organs in response to
external stimuli that are independent of the direction of stimuli.
It is governed by structure of cells (stomata closing / opening).

• B.) Turgor Movement: The movement caused due to the

change in turgor pressure of the cells / sap is called Turgor
movement (Haptonastic movement).
• Example: Leaflets of Mimusa pudica are sensitive to touch
and folds upward. The base of leaf have swelling (Pulvinus),
which losses turgor pressure & bringing the movement of leaf.
Plant Movement

All the Best !!!