GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION

 FRACTURE TRACE ANALYSIS

 Ground water is known to be concentrated
in fracture zones.
 The fracture traces are located by study of
linear features on aerial or satellite
photographs.
 On air photos, natural linear features
consist of:
 Tonal variation in soils
 Alignment of vegetative patterns

 Straight stream segments or valleys

 Natural linear features from 300m to

around 1500m in length are called
fracture traces.
 Those greater than 1500m are called
lineaments.
 Fracture traces are surface expressions of
joints or faults.
 Statistical studies of wells in carbonate
terrane have shown that those located on
fracture traces, either intentionally or
accidentally, have a greater yield than
those not on fracture traces.
 The greatest yields come from wells
located at the intersection of two fracture
traces.
 One problem in identification is the
confusion of linear features of human
origin (fences, cowpaths, roads,powerlines
and harvest patterns) with natural linear
features.
 Following the mapping of linear features
on air photos, it is necessary to make a
field check..
PILOT HOLE DRILLING
 Pilot holes are drilled in order to produce
hydrogeologic logs.
 Geologic/lithologic log
 This log gives a depth-wise record of the
nature, texture and mineral composition of
the rocks drilled through interpreted on the
basis of drill-cutting samples coming out of
the borehole.
 0m
V
V V
V
V V
20
.. . .
. .. . ... .. .. . . ... . .. . . .. .. .. . .. .
. . . . .. . .. . .
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
V V
V
40 V
V V
V V
.... .... ..... ......... . ....... .
60 . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .

. . . . .. .
... .. ..... ... .. .. . . . .. ... .. .
... . . . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .
. ..
80
... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...

. . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . Coarsening upwards sandstone

. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .
100 .... . .. . . .. . . . . . . sequence with a breccia unit at the
.... .. .. .... .. .. .. . .. .. . .. ... . . .... . top
. . . . . . . .. .
....... .. .... . .. . .. .... ... .. ... .. . . .
120 . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . .

. .. . . .
............... .. .... ......... ........ ... ... .... ... ... ...
140 .. .
.. .. . . . . . . . . . .
OOO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
OO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O OO O O O O

160

180
.. .. .. .. ... . ..... . . . . .......... . ... .................. .
..................................
.. .. . .. .. .... ................................

200

. ........................................................... ........ .. ......... . .... ... . ..... . . .

220 . . .. ... . ... . ... ... ..... .. ...... ... ......... .. . ...... ....... ....... ........... .
..O .......O.....O....O
.. .. O .....O.. .O O O O O O O. O O O O O O O
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . Fining upwards sandstone sequences
... .. ...... . .. . .. .... . .............................. .............. .
. . . . .
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O... with coarse grits at the bases
2 40 m O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
SURFICIAL METHODS OF
GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
 These methods can be used to determine:
 The extent and nature of geological materials
beneath the surface.
 The thickness of the unconsolidated surficial
materials.
 The depth to the water table.

 The location of subsurface faults.

 Depth to basement rocks.

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
 Different rock formations have different
resistance to the passage of electrical
current.
 The differences in resistivity can be used to
locate aquifers beneath the earth’s surface.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
 The electrical resistivity ranges in aquifers in
igneous and metamorphic rocks in terms of
potential groundwater occurrence are as follows:
 < 20 ohm.m Very low. This represents
advanced clay weathering, with limited
groundwater potential.
 20 –100 ohm.m Low. This represents optimum
weathering conditions and optimum groundwater
potential.
 100-150 ohm.m Medium. This
represents favourable weathering
conditions with associated moderate
groundwater potential.
 150-250 ohm.m High. Limited
weathering, some fracturing, poor
groundwater development potential.
 >250 ohm.m Very high. Insignificant
weathering, minor fractures, poor to no
groundwater development potential.
 In sedimentary consolidated and unconsolidated
formations the significance of resistivity is as
follows:
 < 50 ohm.m low. Typical of mudstone, clay,
siltstone or fine grained sandstone with relatively
high silt component and clay rich alluvial
deposits. The groundwater potential varies
from nil to moderate.
 50>300 ohm.m Medium. Typical of clean
sandstone, karst features, clean alluvial deposits.
Groundwater potential-nil to very high.
 > 300 ohm.m High. Typical of solid clean
sand, limestone and conglomerate.
 The relationship between resistivity and
groundwater potential in sedimentary rocks
is not as clear as that pertaining to igneous
and metamorphic rocks.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
 A known direct current (I) is introduced
into the ground by means of two metal
electrodes A and B.
 The electrical signal experiences a potential
drop, (ΔV) which is measured between a
second pair of inner electrodes, M and N as
a result of the ground being resistive to the
passage of the electrical current.
 The resistivity of the formation is given by:
 ρ= K ΔV/I
 where K is a geometric factor of the electrode
arrangement:
 K= 2 .
1/
AM – /BM – /AN + /BN
 1 1 1

 ρ represents the true resistivity of the material if

the formation is homogenous.
 In most cases the formation is heterogenous and
consists of two or more layers of different
resistivities and therefore the apparent resistivity
(ρa) is measured instead.
Wenner array

 This configuration of electrodes consists of

the four electrodes spaced equal distances
apart in a straight line:
      AM = MN = NB = a
Schlumberger array

 The potential electrodes (M and N) are

placed close together. Typically, AB is set
equal to or greater than five times the value
of MN.
 Vertical electrical sounding
 This will reveal the variations of apparent
resistivity with depth.
 When the electrode spacing is expanded in
making an electrical sounding, the current
will travel progressively deeper through the
ground and will measure apparent resistivity
to greater depths.
SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD
 The sudden release of energy from the detonation
of an explosive charge in the ground generates
seismic shock waves.
 The shock waves radiate out from the point of
release.
 Measurements of the time taken from the
generation of the shock waves until they are
recorded by detectors located some distance away
from the seismic source.
 Commonly used to find the thickness of
unconsolidated material overlying bedrock
( eg in alluvial aquifers).
 The loose material transmits seismic waves
more slowly than consolidated bedrock.
 The porosity tends to lower the velocity of
the shock waves through a material.
 The seismic wave velocities also vary
according to the water content of the
formation.
BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICAL
LOGGING
 When is borehole geophysical logging
used?
 Lithological logs are missing.
 Poor sample recovery during drilling process.
FLOW LOG
         Used to measure flow within and
between wells.
         Zones of groundwater inflow can be
identified in boreholes. This will help in
deciding on pump and screen depth.
         An impeller flow meter is used.
 NGAM TEMP COND CALP FLOW

n
io
ns el l
Depth Geological

ct
Co W
(API) (Deg c) ( uScm) (mm)

t ru
log %
(m)
0 125 24 27 0 1000 0 300 0 100
0

BATOKA
BASALT
-10

-20 FOREST SANDSTONE

-30

-4 0

-5 0
 TEMP CON FLOW
DEPTH NGAM
Geological log ( API ) ( Deg. C) ( uScm) (%)
( m)
0 0 100 22 30 0 0 100

-10

BATOKA

BASALT

UNPERFORATED
-20

CASING
-30

-40

SCREEN
-50

UPPER FOREST SANDSTONE

-60

-70

UNPERFORATED
CASING
-80

-90

-100

-110
SCREEN

-120
LOWER FOREST SANDSTONE

-130

-140

-150

-160
UNPERFORATED
CASING

-170

-180

-190
BASEMENT
CALIPER LOG
         Used to measure the diameter of an
uncased borehole in bedrock units.
         Can also be used to find casing
depth.
RESISTIVITY LOG
         As the instrument is raised from the bottom
to the top of the hole, it provides a continuous
record of the variation in resistivity of the wall
rock..
         The resistivity values obtained from
borehole logging cab be used in:
     Identification and interpretation of rock
types. Thus clays and shales which have
extremely low resistivities can be identified from
associated sand and sandstone beds.
RESISTIVITY LOG
     Identification of the position of the
water table.
     Determination of bed contacts and bed
thicknesses
     Determination of porosity and
permeability of formations.\
     Evaluation of the quality of the
formation water.
NATURAL GAMMA LOGGING
 Used for identification of rock-types.
 Measures the natural radiation of rocks as
determined by the emission of gamma
radiation by the isotopes:
     Potassium 40
     Uranium 238
     Thorium 232
NATURAL GAMMA LOGGING
  
         These isotopes are constituent
minerals of shales and clays.
         Certain feldspars and micas are high
in Potassium 40.
NATURAL GAMMA LOGGING
         A natural gamma log shows
increasing radiation opposite sedimentary
beds that contain potassium-rich shale, or
clay or phosphate rock.
         Thus, a shaly sandstone can be
distinguished from a clean sandstone.
 The natural gamma radiation log can be
performed on a cased well.
 Bo re hole a t Sa nd stone Cre e K

-300 -200 100 200 300 40 0 500 m

-500 m -400 -100

Bore ho le lo g

0 0
VV
V
-20m VV
. . .. ... -20m
.. . .. .
. . ...
V
V -40m
V
V
-60m V -60m

-80m

N
5 7 10 15 22 32 46 68 100 150 220
Form a tio ns Re sistivity (o hm *m )
V Ba toka Ba sa lt
.....
. . . Nya m a ndhlo vu Sand sto ne