Machining Processes

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 Machining Process
• Cast, formed and shaped products may need
further machining operations to give them the
desired final shape, after removal of extra material
in the form of chips.

• Machining processes remove material from a

work piece by
• CUTTING ( As in case of machine tools like lathe, shaper etc)
• ABRASIVE ( As in case of a grinding wheel)
• NON TRADITIONAL ( Processes such as EDM, ECM Etc.)
Metal Cutting Processes

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 Turning
• High proportion of work machined in shop
turned on lathe
– Turning tool set to given depth of cut, fed
parallel to axis of work (reduces diameter of
work)
• Chip forms and slides along cutting tool's upper
surface created by side rake

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Lathe
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 Planing or Shaping
• Workpiece moved back and forth under
cutting tool
– Fed sideways a set amount at end of each
table reversal

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 Plain Milling
• Multi-tooth tool having several equally spaced
cutting edges around periphery
• Each tooth considered single-point cutting tool
(must have proper rake and clearance angles)
• Workpiece held in vise or fastened to table
– Fed into horizontal revolving cutter
– Each tooth makes successive cuts
– Produces smooth, flat, or profiled surface depending
on shape of cutter

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 Inserted Blade Face Mill
• Consists of body that holds several equally
spaced inserts
• Cutting action occurs at lower corner of insert
– Corners chamfered to give strength

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 End Milling
• Multi-fluted cutters held vertically in
vertical milling machine spindle or
attachment
• Used primarily for cutting slots or grooves
• Workpiece held in vise and fed into
revolving cutter
• End milling
– Cutting done by periphery of teeth

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 Drilling
• Multi-edge cutting tool that
cuts on the point
• Drill's cutting edges (lips)
provided with lip clearance to
permit point to penetrate work
piece as drill revolves

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Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material
to form a chip
•As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process,

(b) tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake
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angle in (a)
 Why Machining is Important

Variety of work materials can be machined

- Most frequently applied to metals

Variety of part shapes and special geometry

features possible, such as:
- Screw threads
- Accurate round holes
- Very straight edges and surfaces

Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

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Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence

Generally performed after other manufacturing

processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing

Other processes create the general shape of the

starting workpiece.

Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish,

and special geometric details that other processes
cannot create.

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Machining Operations

Most important machining operations:

•Turning
•Drilling
•Milling

Other machining operations:

•Shaping and planing
•Broaching
•Sawing

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Examples of machining processes

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Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape.

(a) turning

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Cutting Conditions in Machining

The three dimensions of a machining process:

•Cutting speed v –primary motion
•Feed f –secondary motion
•Depth of cut d –penetration of tool below original work
surface

For certain operations, material removal rate can be

found as
MRR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut

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 Cutting Conditions for Turning

Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning operation

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Roughing vs. Finishing in Machining
In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken
on the part, followed by one or two finishing cuts

•Roughing - removes large amounts of material from

the starting workpeice.
- Creates shape close to desired geometry, but
leaves some material for finish cutting
- High feeds and depths, low speeds

•Finishing - completes part geometry

- Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
- Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds

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 Types of chips
• Continuous
• Built up edge
• Serrated or segmented
• Discontinuous

Basic types of chips and their photomicrographs produced in metal cutting (a) continuous ship with a
narrow,straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the chip tool interface;(c) continuous
chip with large primary shear zone; (d) continuous chip with built-up-edge;(e) segmented or
nonhomogeneous chip and (f) discontinuous chips
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 Continuous chips

(b) Surface finish in turning 5130 steel with a

built-up edge

(a) Hardness distribution in the cutting zone

for 3115 steel.Note that some regions in the
built-up edge are as mach as three times
harder than the bulk metal

(c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling

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 Continuous chips

• Continuous chips are usually formed at high

rake angles and/or high cutting speeds.
• A good surface finish is generally produced.
• continuous chips are not always desirable,
particularly in automated machine tools,
• tend to get tangled around the tool
• operation has to be stopped to clear away
the chips.

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 Built-up edges chips
• BUE consists of layers of material from the
workpiece that are gradually deposited on the tool.
• BUE then becomes unstable and eventually breaks up
• BUE material is carried away on the tool side of the
chip
• the rest is deposited randomly on the workpiece
surface.
• BUE results in poor surface finish
• reduced by increasing the rake angle and therefore
decreasing the depth of cut.
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 Discontinuous chips
• Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be
firmly or loosely attached to each other
• These chips occur when machining hard brittle
materials such as cast iron.

• Brittle failure takes place along the shear plane

before any tangible plastic flow occurs

• Discontinuous chips will form in brittle materials at

low rake angles (large depths of cut).

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 Serrated chips
• Segmented chips or non-
homogeneous chips
• Semi continuous chips with
zones low and high shear
strain
(e)segmented or
• Low thermal conductivity and nonhomogeneous chip and

strength metals exhibit this

behavior

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 Chip Breakers
• Long continuous chip
are undesirable
• Chip breaker is a piece
of metal clamped to the
rake surface of the tool
which bends the chip
and breaks it
• Chips can also be broken
by changing the tool
geometry,thereby
(a) Schematic illustration of the action of a
controlling the chip flow chip breaker .(b) Chip breaker clamped on
the rake of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in
cutting tools acting as chip breakers
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 Temperature In Cutting

Fig:Percentage of the heat generated in

Fig:Typical temperature distribution cutting going into the workpiece,tool,and
in the cutting zone. chip,as a function of cutting speed.
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 Temperature Distributions

Fig:Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: a) flank temperature

distribution;and b)tool-chip interface temperature distribution
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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure

1. Flank wear :It occurs

on the relief face of
the tool and the side
relief angle.
2. Crater wear:It occurs
on the rake face of the
tool.
Fig (a) Flank and crater wear in a cutting tool.tool
3. Chipping :Breaking moves to the left. (b) View of the rake of a
turning tool,showing nose radius R and crater
away of a small piece wear pattern on the rake face of the tool
from the cutting edge c)View of the flank face of a turning
tool,sowing the average flank wear land VB
of the tool . and the depth-of-cut line (wear notch)

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 Factors influencing cutting process
Parameter Influence and interrelationship

Cutting speed depth of Forces power,temperature rise,tool life,type of chips,surface

cut,feed,cutting fluids. finish.
Tool angles As above;influence on chip flow direction;resistance to tool
chipping.
Continuous chip Good surface finish;steady cutting forces;undesirable in
automated machinery.
Poor surface finish,thin stable edge can product tool surface.
Built-up-edge chip
Discontinuous chip Desirable for ease of chip disposal;fluctuating cutting
forces;can affect surface finish and cause vibration and
chatters.
Temperature rise. Influences surface finish,dimensional accuracy,temperature
rise,forces and power.
Tool wear Influences surface finish,dimensional accuracy,temperature
rise,forces and power.
Machinability Related to tool life,surface finish,forces and power

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