The cell cycle and cell division

Dr.P.Simoonga, MD
Bsc.Hb, MbChB
UNZA/UTH
 THE CELL CYCLE
• The cell cycle refers to the series of events that occur in
a cell resulting in its division and duplication.
• In prokaryotes, the cell cycle occurs through the
process of binary fission.
• In eukaryotes, the cell cycle can be divided in two
periods: 
 Interphase – in this period, the cell grows, accumulating
nutrients needed for mitosis and duplicating its DNA.

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 THE CELL CYCLE
  mitosis (M) phase- this is the period during which
the cell splits itself into two distinct cells,
(daughter cells) and the final phase, cytokinesis,
where the new cell is completely divided.
• The alternation of mitosis and interphase is what
is actually referred to as the cell cycle.
• The cell cycle is essential for reproduction,
growth and repair of body tissues
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 PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE

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 INTERPHASE
• Interphase is divided into 3 phases: G1, S and G2
 G1 or Gap 1
• is the interval between mitosis and the onset of DNA replication
• During this phase (G1 )proteins and RNA are synthesised
S or the synthesis phase
• is where DNA replication takes place
• when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has
two (sister) chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively
doubled
G2 or Gap 2
• Is the interval between the S phase and the next mitosis.
• Significant biosynthesis occurs during this phase, mainly involving the production
of microtubules, which are required during the process of mitosis
• DNA repair occurs and the cell prepares for mitosis

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 INTERPHASE
• By the time G2 has been reached, the cell contains 2 identical
copies of each of the 46 chromosomes
• These identical chromosomes are referred to as sister chromatids
• The duration of the cell cycle differs from one cell type to another
• It is shorter (about 10 hours)in rapidly dividing cells such as those of
the epithelial cells of the intestines
• Cells of the liver may divide only once in a year
• Skeletal muscle cells and neurones stop dividing in adults
• When cells stop dividing for a long period of time, they are often
said to be in the Go stage

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 MITOSIS
• The stages in mitosis include
I. (interphase),
II. prophase,
III. metaphase,
IV. anaphase,
V. telophase.
• Remembering “IPMAT” or Intelligent People Meet At Twelve can help
you remember the stages in order.
• Strictly speaking, interphase is the stage in which a cell spends most of
its life and is not part of the process of mitosis, per se, but is usually
discussed along with the other stages.
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 PROPHASE
• the chromosomes start to coil, shorten, condense and become visible
under the microscope
• In animals, the centrioles begin to migrate to the poles of the cell.
• The mitotic spindle or polar fibers begin to form from the poles of the cell
towards the equator.
• The two sister chromatids of each chromosome lie together attached at the
centromere
• the spindle fibres become attached to the centromeres of each
chromosome to line up and, later, move the chromosomes.
• Also at this time, the nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate.

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 METAPHASE
•  is characterized by the lining up of the chromosomes along
the equator of the cell or what is called the metaphase
plate.
• The nuclear envelope has totally disintegrated and the
polar fibers have reached the centromeres of the
chromosomes and have begun interacting with them.

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  ANAPHASE
• the sister chromatids separate at the centromeres, thus can now be
called chromosomes.
• These are pulled to the poles of the cell by the mitotic spindle.
• At the end of anaphase, the cell contains 92 separate chromosomes,
46 lying near one pole and the other 46 near the other pole

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 TELOPHASE
• the new daughter nuclei and nuclear envelopes start to
reform around each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes
• The spindle fibres begin to disappear and the chromosomes
uncoil.
• Telophase frequently includes the start of cytokinesis. In
animal cells, cytokinesis starts with a cleavage furrow or
indentation around the middle that eventually pinches in,
dividing the cell in two

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Meiosis – A Source of Distinction
Why do you share some but not all characters of each parent?

What are the rules of this sharing game?

At one level, the

answers lie in meiosis.
Meiosis does two things -

1) Meiosis takes a cell with two copies of every

chromosome (diploid) and makes cells with a
single copy of every chromosome (haploid).

This is a good idea if you’re going to combine

two cells to make a new organism. This trick is
accomplished by halving chromosome number.

In meiosis, one diploid cells produces four

haploid cells.
Why do we need meiosis?

• Meiosis is necessary to halve the number of

chromosomes going into the sex cells

Why halve the chromosomes in gametes?

• At fertilization the male and female sex cells
will provide ½ of the chromosomes each –
so the offspring has genes from both
parents
2) Meiosis scrambles the specific forms of each
gene that each sex cell (egg or sperm) receives.

This makes for a lot of genetic diversity. This trick is

accomplished through independent assortment and
crossing-over.

Genetic diversity is important for the evolution of

populations and species.
One Way Meiosis Makes Lots of
Different Sex Cells (Gametes) –
Independent Assortment
Independent assortment produces 2n
distinct gametes, where n = the number of
unique chromosomes.

In humans, n = 23 and 223 = 6,000,0000.

That’s a lot of diversity by this

mechanism alone.
 Another Way Meiosis Makes Lots of Different Sex
Cells – Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of different gamete types

produced by independent assortment.
Meiosis
Parent cell – chromosome
pair

Chromosomes
copied

1st division - pairs split

2nd division – produces 4

gamete cells with ½ the
original no. of
chromosomes
 The Stages of Meiosis:
• aka: Reduction Division

Meiosis I : Separates Homologous Chromosomes

• Interphase
– Each of the chromosomes replicate
– The result is two genetically identical sister chromatids
which remain attached at their centromeres
 Prophase I
• This is a crucial phase for mitosis.
• During this phase each pair of chromatids don’t
move to the equator alone, they match up with
their homologous pair and fasten together
(synapsis) in a group of four called a tetrad.
• Extremely IMPORTANT!!! It is during this phase
that crossing over can occur.
• Crossing Over is the exchange of segments during
synapsis.
 Metaphase I
• The chromosomes line up at the equator attached by their
centromeres to spindle fibers from centrioles.
– Still in homologous pairs

Anaphase I
• The spindle guides the movement of the chromosomes toward the
poles
– Sister chromatids remain attached
– Move as a unit towards the same pole
• The homologous chromosome moves toward the opposite pole
– Contrasts mitosis – chromosomes appear as individuals instead of
pairs (meiosis)
 Telophase I
• This is the end of the first meiotic cell division.
• The cytoplasm divides, forming two new daughter cells.
• Each of the newly formed cells has half the number of the parent cell’s
chromosomes, but each chromosome is already replicated ready for the
second meiotic cell division.

Cytokinesis
• Occurs simultaneously with telophase I
– Forms 2 daughter cells
• Plant cells – cell plate
• Animal cells – cleavage furrows
• NO FURTHER REPLICATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL PRIOR
TO THE SECOND DIVISION OF MEIOSIS
Figure 13.7 The stages of meiotic cell division: Meiosis I
Meiosis II : Separates sister chromatids
• Proceeds similar to mitosis
• THERE IS NO INTERPHASE II !

Prophase II
• Each of the daughter cells forms a spindle, and the double
stranded chromosomes move toward the equator
Metaphase II
• The chromosomes are positioned on the metaphase plate in a
mitosis-like fashion.
 Anaphase II
• The centromeres of sister chromatids finally separate
• The sister chromatids of each pair move toward opposite poles
– Now individual chromosomes

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

• Nuclei form at opposite poles of the cell and cytokinesis occurs
• After completion of cytokinesis there are four daughter cells
– All are haploid (n)
Figure 13.7 The stages of meiotic cell division: Meiosis II