Introduction to Metrology

Metrology
• Derived form Greek words Such as Metro –
Measurement & Logy - Science.
• BIMP (Bureau of Weights and Measures) – “
The Science of Measurement, embracing both
experimental & theoretical determinations at
any level of uncertainty in any field of science
& technology”
 Functions of Metrology
• Establishing units of measurement
• Reproducing these units as standards
• Ensuring the uniformity of measurement
• Development of method of measurement
• Analysis of accuracy of methods related
to errors.
 2. Standards of Measurement
1. Units of Measurement

Uniformity of Measurement
 Methods of Measurement

Accuracy
 Objectives of Metrology
• Used for selection of proper
measuring instrument.
• Used deciding the proper
standards.
for measuring
• Used for minimizing cost of inspection.
• Determining process capabilities.
• Decide/find tolerances.
• Achieve standardization.
• Maintain accuracy and precision at the time
of inspection.
 Standards of Measurement
• A standard is an exact quantity that
people agree to use for comparison.
 Types of Standards
• Primary Standard
• Secondary Standard
• Tertiary Standard
• Working Standard
 Primary Standard
• They are material standard preserved under
most careful conditions.
• These are not used for directly for
measurements but are used once in 10 or 20
years for calibrating secondary standards.
• Ex: International Prototype meter, Imperial
Standard yard.
 Example : International Prototype
Meter

The bars were to be made of a special alloy, 90% platinum

and 10% iridium, which is significantly harder than pure
platinum, and have a special X-shaped cross section (a
"Tresca section", named after French engineer Henri Tresca)
to minimise the effects of torsional strain during length
comparisons.
 International Prototype Weight
• The IPK is made of a platinum alloy known as “Pt-10Ir”, which
is 90% platinum and 10% iridium (by mass) and is machined
into a right-circular cylinder (height = diameter) of 39.17
millimeters to minimize its surface area.
 Secondary Standard
• The value of the secondary standard quantity
is less accurate than primary standard one. It
is obtained by comparing with primary
standard.
• These are close copies of primary standards
w.r.t design, material & length.
 Tertiary Standard
• Maintained in National Physics Laboratories
(NPL).
• The primary or secondary standards exist as
the ultimate controls for reference at rare
intervals.
• They are made as close copies of secondary
standards & are kept as reference for
comparison with working standards.
 Working Standards

• These standards are similar in design to

primary, secondary & tertiary standards.
• But being less in cost and are made of low
grade materials, they are used for general
applications in metrology laboratories
 Line Standard
• The standard in which the distance is
measured between two straight and parallel
lines.
• Example :- Steel Rule
• Advantages
– Quick and easy
– Cheaper
• Disadvantages
– Parallax error can be generated
– Accuracy Less
 End Standard
• When the distance is measured between two flat
and parallel surfaces it is called as end standard.
• Example : Vernier Caliper, Micrometer
• Advantages
– Accuracy of 0.005mm is measureable
– Minimum possibility of parallax error
• Disadvantages
– They are costly and difficult to use
– The measuring surfaces are to be protected.
 Wavelength Standard
• Material Standards are subjected to errors due
to continuous use because of this wavelength
standards are used.
• Light sources like Cadmium 114, Krypton 86
etc. in hot cathode discharge lamp at 68 K.
• According to this
– 1m = 16507623.73 x Wavelength of Kr 86
Krypton 86
Wavelength Experiment
Difference between line, end and wavelength
standard
Sr. No Parameter Line Standard End Standard Wavelength Standard

1 Accuracy Limted ± 0.2 mm Good ±0.001 Highest

2 Time of Quick Sligthly more Time consuming
Measurement than line
3 Effect of Use Diffecult to Ends are harden Depends on
assume zero wavelength
4 Errors Parallax Wringing errors, No error
environmental
error, wear
and tear
5 Process Easy Slightly difficult Highly difficult
6 Cost Low Medium High
7 Example Steel rule Vernier, Slip Monochromatic light
gauges source
8 Care Engraved lines Measuring Not affected
must be protected ends
must be protected
 Slip Gauges
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having a
cross section about 30 x 10 mm.
 Selecting Slips
• Minimum number of slip gauges chosen for
combination of blocks depending on the type of set
available.
 Standard Sets
Set of M45
Range (mm) Step (mm) Pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.09 0.01 9
1.1 to 1.9 0.1 9
1 to 9 1 9
10 to 90 10 9
Total 45

Set of M87
Range (mm) Step (mm) Pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 9.5 0.5 19
10 to 90 10 9
1.005 - 1
Total 87
 Steps
• Example : Arranging dimension of 56.421mm
1. Consider last decimal first i.e. 0.001mm.
2. Since the gauge of 0.001 is not
available, select 1.001mm slip gauge
3. 56.421 – 1.001 = 55.42mm dimension now
we have to adjust.
4. Consider second decimal point i.e.
0.02mm
5. Select slip gauge 1.02mm
6. There for 55.42 – 1.02 = 54.40mm remains
7. We have slip gauge of 1.4mm, 3.0mm there
fore,
8. 54.40-3.0-1.4 = 50mm dimension we have to
adjust.
9.Finally choose 50mm slip gauge
10.Thus, we have
50.000+3.000+1.400+1.020+1.0
01 = 56.421.
 Accessories of slip gauges
• Various slip gauges accessories are as shown
in following figure and listed as
1. Measuring jaws
2. Scribing and center point
3. Holders and base
• Holder can be used in combination of slip
gauges for measuring overall length, internal
and external dimensions. The holder provides
proper grip to slips.
• After selection of slips are taken in the holder
and then gripping pressure is applied and
measurement can be started.
 Care of slip gauges
1. All surfaces are protected by applying anti corrosive jelly.
2. They are prevented from dust and dirt.
3. When not in use they should be kept at their proper places.
4. Gauges are used in air conditioned rooms which
protects them from thermal expansions
5. Gauges are to be demagnetized for avoiding attract of metal
dust.
6. They should be handled as minimum as possible.
7. Handling should be done using hand gloves.
8. Never they should be kept on working surfaces.
9. After use remove finger marks and wiped gauges are placed in
box.
10. Slip gauges are not kept in the wrung position for unnecessary
length of time.
 Static & Dynamic Characteristics of
Measuring Instrument
• Precision • Amplification
• Accuracy • Magnification
• Sensitivity • Reproducibility
• Hysteresis • Drift
• Speed of Response • Resolution
(Response Time) • Interchangeability
• Repeatability
• Calibration
 Accuracy & Precision

Targe
t

Case 1 – Low Accuracy Low Precision

 Accuracy & Precision

Targe
t

Case 2 – Low Accuracy High Precision

 Accuracy & Precision

Targe
t

Case 3 – High Accuracy Low Precision

 Accuracy & Precision

Targe
t

Case 3 – High Accuracy High Precision

 Accuracy
• Closeness of measured value with true value
• Can be determined by single reading
• For example, if in lab you obtain a weight
measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but
the actual or known weight is 10 kg, then your
measurement is not accurate. In this case, your
measurement is not close to the known value.
• Eg. A job having dimension 25mm and instrument
showing reading 24.98mm
 Precision
• Defined as repeatability of measuring
instrument i.e. how close the measured values
are to each other..
• Can not be determined by single reading i.e. for
describing precision a set of readings required.
• E.g. reading obtained from measuring instrument
– True reading – 25mm
– 24.7 , 25.31, 24.69, 24.89, 25.02 - Set 1
– 24.98, 25.02, 25.01, 25.00, 25.00 – Set 2
comparison
• The ratio of change in output of an instrument
to smallest change in input.
• Example: -
– If the sensitivity of the voltmeter is say 1mv then if
you apply a potential difference 1mv the display
moves. If you apply less than 1mv the display dose
not moves.
 Linearity
• Proportional Relationship between input and
output of measuring instrument is linearity.
 Hysteresis
It is difference between the indications of measuring instrument when the
same value of the measured quantity is reached by increasing or by
decreasing that quantity

Input Upscale Downscale Ideal Ideal

Weigh up Dn
t
1 Kg 1 Kg 5.02 Kg 1 Kg 5 Kg
2 Kg 2.03 Kg 3.99 Kg 2 Kg 4 Kg
3 Kg 3.1Kg 2.89 Kg 3 Kg 3 Kg
4 Kg 4.05 Kg 1.99 Kg 4 kg 2 Kg
5 Kg 5.03 kg 0.92 Kg 5 Kg 1 Kg

4.05 – 3.99 = 0.06 kg

 Repeatabilit
y
• Repeatability or test–retest reliability is the
variation in measurements taken by a single
person or instrument on the same item,
under the same conditions, and in a short
period of time.
• A measurement may be said to be repeatable
when this variation is smaller than a pre-
determined acceptance criteria.
 Reproducibility
• It is the quantitative measurement of the
closeness of the agreement between the
results of measurement of the same
measurand, carried out by changing the
method of measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, condition of use, time
etc.
 Calibration
• Process through which the reliability of
instrument is maintained by comparing the
instrument with known standards.
• Need
To takeinto account the error
producing properties of each component.
 To take into account environmental errors.
To understand/detect error generated
due to frequent use of equipment
To assure quality of inspection
during manufacturing process.
Calibration Example
 Drift
• It is an instrument's ability to maintain it’s
calibration over a period of time
• If an instrument does not reproduce the same
reading at different times of measurement for
the same input signal, it is said to have drift. If
an instrument has perfect reproducibility, it is
said to have no drift.
 Range
• The region between the limits within which an
instrument is designed to operate for
measuring it input quantity called range of
instrument.
• Range is expressed by stating upper and
lower values.
• E.g. thermometer range -100oC to 100oC
 Span
• Algebraic difference between upper and lower
range values of instrument.
• E.g. span of thermometer having range -100
to 100 oC
• Span = Upper Value – Lower Value
• Span = 100-(-100) = 200 oC
 Dead Time
• It is the time lag
between a input given
to an instrument and
the resulting output...
 Dead Zone
• Largest change of input quantity for there no
output
• E.g. when input is applied to instrument may
not be sufficient to overcome the friction. It
will only response when it will overcome
friction.
 Resolution
Ability of instrument which can read smallest dimension of
measurement
 Speed of Response
• The speed of response of measuring
instrument is defined as the quickness with
which an instrument responds to a change in
the input
signal.
Overshoot
Interchangeability
 Errors
• Difference between measured value and true
value.
• Types of Error
– Systematic Error
– Random Error
 Systematic Error
• Systematic errors in experimental
observations usually come from the
measuring instruments. They are controllable
in nature
• They may occur because:
• There is something wrong with
the instrument or its data handling system, or
• Because the instrument is wrongly used by the
experimenter.
Example of Systematic Error : Parallax
Error
 Random Error
• These errors occurs randomly hence they can
not be eliminated but their intensity can be
minimized.
• Example:
– Positioning standard or work piece, slight
displacement of the jaws, fluctuation of
instrument, operator error etc.
 Sources of Errors
• Defect in the instrument
• Adjustment of instrument
• Imperfection of instrument design.
• Method of location of instrument
• Environmental effects
• Error because of properties of work piece
• Error due to surface finish of object
• Error due to change in size of object
 Environmental Error
• 25mm steel length will increase by 0.3
microns if there is change in 1 deg. Cent.
Temperature.
• Standard Humidity and temperature
• 20 deg. Centigrade at 35 to 45 % RH.
 Dirt Error
• Dirt particles can enter in the inspection room
through door, windows etc. these particles can
create small change or errors at the time of
measurement. For this only, various
laboratories are to be in the dust prof rooms.
 Support Error

Supports too close

Supports too long

Proper support
Contact Pressure Error
 Sine Error

sin ϴ = e/(d/2 ) ∴e= d/2 sinθ

ϴ - small angle by which line of measurement

get’s inclined.
e – error at one side.
Cosine Error

∴Error=𝑙 − 𝐿 = 𝑙 − 𝑙 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑙(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Contact Error
Parallax Error
 Verniers
• When two scales have slightly difference in
sizes are use, the difference between them
can be utilized for increase in accuracy of
measurement.
• Types of Verniers
– Simple Vernier
– Vernier Height Gauge
– Venire Depth gauge
– Micrometer
– Depth micrometer
– Inside micrometer
 Simple Vernier
• By using vernier, following measurements can
be done
– Outside dimensions (Outside jaws in use)
– Inside dimensions (Inside Jaws in use)
– Depth (Using depth bar)
– Step Measurement (Using step surface)
Vernie
r
 Calculating Least Count
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜 𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛
• 𝐿. 𝐶.
𝑁 𝑢𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑚 𝑏 𝑒 𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜 𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟
= 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
• If value of smallest division on main scale is
1mm and there are 50 numbers of divisions
on vernier scale then least count will be
1
• 𝐿. 𝐶. = 0.02𝑚𝑚
50
=
 Reading Vernier

•Total Reading (TR) = Main Scale Reading

(MSR) + [Vernier Scale Division (VSD) x
Least Count (LC)]
i.e. TR = MSR + VSD x LC
TR = 18 + (23*0.02) = 18 + 0.46 = 18.46
TR = 18.46 mm
Vernier Height gauge
Vernier Depth Gauge

Work Piece
 Micrometer

• Parts of Micrometer
– Frame
– Anvil and spindle
– Screwed spindle
– Graduated sleeve or barrel
– Thimble
– Ratchet or friction stop
– Spindle clamp
 Micromete
r

Least Count of Micrometer is = 0.01mm (i.e. 0.5/50 => Smallest

division on main scale is 0.5mm and total divisions on vernier
scale is 50).
Micrometer Reading
Depth Micrometer
Inside Micrometer
Supporting Devices
 Surface Plate

Surface Plate

Adjustable
Stand
Angle Plate
V - Block
Sprit Level
comparators
Introductio
n
The general principle of comparator is to indicate
the differences in size between the standard and
the work being measured by means of some pointer
on a scale with sufficient magnification

It thus does not measure the actual dimension but

indicates how much it differs from the basic
dimension
In short, Comparator is a device
which

 (1) Picks up small variations in

dimensions.

 (2) Magnifies it.

 (3) Displays it by using indicating devices,

by which comparison can be made with
some standard value.
Need

(i)In mass production, where components are to

be checked at a very fast rate.
(ii)As laboratory standards from which
working or inspection gauges are set and
correlated.
(iii) For inspecting newly purchased gauges.
(iv)Attached with some machines, comparators
can be used as working gauges to prevent
work spoilage and to maintain required
tolerances at all stages of manufacturing.
(v)In selective assembly of parts, where parts
are graded in three or more groups depending
 TYPES

1. Mechanical Comparator: It works on gears

pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc.
2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic comparator
works by using high pressure air, valves, back pressure
etc.
3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator works by using
lens, mirrors, light source etc.
4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using step up,
step down transformers.
5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using
amplifier, digital signal etc
6. Combined Comparator: The combination of any two of
the above types can give the best result.
7. Fluid displacement comparators
Mechanical Type (The usual 250 to
1000 X)

 It is self controlled and no power or any other

form of energy is required.
 It employs mechanical means for magnifying
the small movement of the measuring stylus.
 The movement is due to the difference
between the standard and the actual dimension
being checked.
 The method for magnifying the small stylus
movement in all the mechanical comparators is
by means of levers, gear trains or combination
of these.
The various types of mechanical
comparators are

1. Dial indicator,
2. Rack and pinion,
3. Sigma comparator,
4. Johansson Mikrokator.
1. Dial indicator / Dial Gauge
Use of templates
 Working

 It operates on the principle, that a very slight upward

pressure on the spindle at the contact point is multiplied
through a system of gears and levers.

 It is indicated on the face of the dial by a dial finger.

 Dial indicators basically consists of a body with a round

graduated dial and a contact point connected with a
spiral or gear train so that hand on the dial face
indicates the amount of movement of the contact point.

 They are designed for use on a wide range

standard
of measuring devices such as dial box gauges,
portal dial, hand gauges, dial depth gauges, diameter
gauges and dial indicator snap gauge
 Application

1. Comparing two heights or distances

between narrow limits.
2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such
as ovality, roundness and taper.
3. For taking accurate measurement of
deformation such as intension and compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as
parallelism, squareness and alignment.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using
suitable accurate bar between the centers.
6. To check trueness of milling machine arbours and
to check the parallelism of shaper arm with table
surface or vice.
7. Checking of components with a tolerance of + 0.005 mm
Johansson Mikrokator
  Working Principle

A very thin metalstrip at the centre

carries a light pointer made up of glass .
One end of the strip is connected to the adjustable
cantilever strip and the other end is to the spring elbow,
in turn connected to the plunger.
The slight movements of the plunger will make the bell
crank lever to rotate.
This rotation will create tension in the strip and causes
the strip to rotate thereby the strip start to
untwist resulting in the movement of the point
 Magnification up to 5000X can be obtained by
 PROS

1. They do not require any external source

of energy.
2.These are cheaper and portable.
3.These are of robust construction and
compact design.
4. The simple linear scales are easy to
read.
5. These are unaffected by variations due
to external source of energy such air,
electricity etc.
Cons (LIMITATIONS)

1.Range is limited as the pointer moves

over a fixed scale.
2.Pointer scale system used can cause
parallax error.
3.There are number of moving parts
which create problems due to friction,
and ultimately the accuracy is less.
4.The instrument may become sensitive
to vibration due to high inertia.
REED TYPE
 Working Principle

 The amount of target swing is proportional to the

distance the floating block has moved but of
course very much magnified.
 The scale may be calibrated by means of gauge
block (slip gauges) to indicate any deviation from an
initial setting.
Sensitivities of the order of 0.25 micron per scale
division.
 The mechanical amplification is usually less than
100, but it is multiplied by the optical lens system.
 It is available in amplifications ranging from x 500
Mechanical - Optical
 Working Principle

 In mechanical optical comparator, small

variation in the plunger movement is magnified:
first by mechanical system and then by optical
system.
 In mechanical optical comparators small
displacements of the measuring plunger are
amplified first by a mechanical system
consisting of pivoted levers.
 The mechanical
movement is further amplified by a simple
amplified
optical system involving the projection of an
image.
 PROS

1.These Comparators are almost weightless

and have less number of moving parts, due
to this there is less wear and hence less
friction.
2.Higher range even at high magnification is
possible as the scale moves past the index.
3.The scale can be made to move past a
datum line and without having any parallax
errors.
4.They are used to magnify parts of very
small size and of complex configuration
such as intricate grooves, radii or steps.
 Cons

1. The accuracy of measurement is limited to

0.001 mm
2. They have their own built in illuminating
device which tends to heat the instrument.
3. Electrical supply is required.
4. Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain
on the operator.
5. Projection type instruments occupy large
space and they are expensive.
6. When the scale is projected on a screen, then
it is essential to take the instrument to a dark
room in order to take the readings easily.
ELECTRICAL TYPE
 Working Principle

 In electrical comparators, the movement of the

measuring contact is converted into an electrical
signal.
 The electrical signal is recorded by an
instrument which can be calibrated in terms of
plunger movement.
 For this an AC bridge
circuit used.
wheatstone incorporating a
rather be said that all the electronic comparators
It can
galvanometer is
work on the principle of wheatstone bridge.
 Electrical comparators have no moving parts.
Thus a high degree of reliability is expected from
 Pros:

1.Measuring units can be remote from

indicating units
.
2. Variable sensitivity which can be
adjusted as per requirement.
3. No moving parts, hence it can retain
accuracy over long periods.
4. Higher magnification is possible as
compared to mechanical comparator.
5. Compact sizes of probes arc available.
 Cons
The accuracy of working of these
comparators is likely to be affect due
to temperature and humidity.
It is not a self contained unit; it needs
stabilized power supply for its
operation.
 Heating of coils can cause zero
drifts and it may alter calibration.
It is more expensive than mechanical
comparator
Pneumatic Comparators
Working Principle
oIt works on the principle of pressure
difference generated by the air flow.
oAir is supplied at constant pressure
through the orifice and the air
escapes in the form of jets through a
restricted space which exerts a back
pressure.
oThe variation in the back pressure is
then used to find the dimensions of
a component.
The air is compressed in the compressor at high pressure
which is equal to Water head H. The excess air escapes in the
form of bubbles. Then the metric amount of air is passed
through the orifice at the constant pressure. Due to restricted
area, at A1 position, the back pressure is generated by the
head of water displaced in the manometer tube. To determine
the roundness of the job, the job is rotated along the jet axis, if
no variation in the pressure reading is obtained then we can
say that the job is perfectly circular at position A1. Then the
same procedure is repeated at various positions A2, A3, A4,
position and variation in the pressure reading is found out. Also
the diameter is measured at position A1 corresponding to the
portion against two jets and diameter is also measured at
various position along the length of the bore
 PROS
1. It is cheaper, simple to operate and the
cost is low.
2. It is free from mechanical hysteresis and wear.
3. The magnification can be obtained as high
as 10,000 X.
4. The gauging member is not in direct contact with
the work.
5. Indicating and measuring is done at two different
places.
6. Tapers and ovality can be easily detected.
7. The method is self cleaning due to continuous
flow of air through the jets and this makes the
method ideal to be used on shop floor for online
controls.
 CONS
1. They are very sensitive to temperature and
humidity changes.
2. The accuracy may be influenced by the
surface roughness of the component being
checked. 3.
3. Different gauging heads are needed for
different jobs.
4. Auxiliary equipments such as air filters,
pressure gauges and regulators are needed.
5. Non-uniformity of scale is a peculiar aspect of
air gauging as the variation of back pressure is
linear, over only a small range of the orifice
size variation
Angular measurement
Angular Measurement :-

A)Vernier Bevel Protractors

B) Sine Bars

C) Sine Centers

D) Angle Gauges

E)Autocollimator
APPLI
CATI
ON
OF
SLIP
GAU
GES
Advantages of sine Bar:-

1) It is used for accurate and precise angular measurement

2) It is available easily
3) Its is cheap

Disadvantage:-

4) The application is limited for a fixed centre distance

between two plugs or rollers.
5) It is difficult to handle and position the slip gauges
If the angle exceeds 45 degree sine bar are impracticable and
inaccurate.
3) Large angular error may result due to slight error in
sine bar
ANGLE GAUGES
AUTO COLLIMATOR