Epithermal Au-Ag (low

sulphidation) system
Huaji Lei
Ashley Uren
Introduction

 General overview of epithermal deposits

 Characteristics of the metal bearing fluid and experimental proofs
 Origin of the fluid and implication for Au transport
 Discussion and evidence for metal precipitations mechanism
 Concluding geological model with processes mentioned
Simmons et al. 2005, SEG 100th anniversary volume

General Epithermal characteristics

Classification Qz +/-Cal +/-adularia +/-illite (low Qz +alunite +/- pyrophyllite +/-dickite +/-
(proximal alteration Sulphidation system) kaolinite
assemblage) (high Sulphidation system)
Metals association Au-Ag, Ag-Au, Ag-Pb-Zn Au +/- Ag +/- Cu
Metal bearing Electrum, acanthite, silver sulfo salts Native gold and electrum, with variable Py,
minerals and tellurides, minor galena, Cu-sulfides (enargite), sulfosalts,
sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite sphalerite and tellurides
Structural textures Banded crustiform-colloform Vuggy quartz, vertical veins
Tectonic setting Volcanic arcs including intra-arc, back-arcs and post collisional rift setting
Geodynamic drivers Convergence, subduction
Typical crustal depth <1.5 km depth
Source of metals Calc-alkaline and alkaline magmatism
Metal fluids Reduced Oxidised
Medial-distal Regional propylitic, around deposits Concentric around the deposit and in the
alteration mineralogy clay, carbonate, zeolite root, illite-smectite and then regional
propylitic alteration
Simmons et al. 2005, SEG 100th anniversary volume

General Epithermal characteristics

Classification Qz +/-Cal +/-adularia +/-illite (low Qz +alunite +/- pyrophyllite +/-dickite +/-
(proximal alteration Sulphidation system) kaolinite
assemblage) (high Sulphidation system)
Metals association Au-Ag, Ag-Au, Ag-Pb-Zn Au +/- Ag +/- Cu
Metal bearing Electrum, acanthite, silver sulfo salts Native gold and electrum, with variable Py,
minerals and tellurides, minor galena, Cu-sulfides (enargite), sulfosalts,
sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite sphalerite and tellurides
Structural textures Banded crustiform-colloform Vuggy quartz, vertical veins
Tectonic setting Volcanic arcs including intra-arc, back-arcs and post collisional rift setting
Geodynamic drivers Convergence, subduction
Typical crustal depth <1.5 km depth
Source of metals Calc-alkaline and alkaline magmatism
Metal fluids Reduced Oxidised
Medial-distal Regional propylitic, around deposits Concentric around the deposit and in the
alteration mineralogy clay, carbonate, zeolite root, illite-smectite and then regional
propylitic alteration
Simmons et al. 2005, SEG 100th anniversary volume

General Epithermal characteristics

Classification Qz +/-Cal +/-adularia +/-illite (low Qz +alunite +/- pyrophyllite +/-dickite +/-
(proximal alteration Sulphidation system) kaolinite
assemblage) (high Sulphidation system)
Metals association Au-Ag, Ag-Au, Ag-Pb-Zn Au +/- Ag +/- Cu
Metal bearing Electrum, acanthite, silver sulfo salts Native gold and electrum, with variable Py,
minerals and tellurides, minor galena, Cu-sulfides (enargite), sulfosalts,
sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite sphalerite and tellurides
Structural textures Banded crustiform-colloform Vuggy quartz, vertical veins
Tectonic setting Volcanic arcs including intra-arc, back-arcs and post collisional rift setting
Geodynamic drivers Convergence, subduction
Typical crustal depth <1.5 km depth
Source of metals Calc-alkaline and alkaline magmatism
Metal fluids Reduced Oxidised
Medial-distal Regional propylitic, around deposits Concentric around the deposit and in the
alteration mineralogy clay, carbonate, zeolite root, illite-smectite and then regional
propylitic alteration
Hedenquist et al. 2000
 Fluid Characteristics
Au-Ag low Typical values Evidence References
sulphidation
Temperature 150-300°C Qz fluid inclusion Simmons et al.
2005, Cooke and
Simmons, 2000
Depth 100 – 500 m Qz fluid inclusion + Cooke and
(pressure) (40 – 400 bars) modern environment Simmons, 2000,
below palaeo- Sherlock et al.
water table 1995
Oxidation Reduced Min assemblage and Cooke and
state (fO2) Qz fluid inclusion Simmons, 2000
Sulfidation Low (fS2 -10 Min assemblages and Einaudi et al.
state (fS2) to -18) modern environment 2003
pH Neutral (6.5 – Fluid inclusions and Einaudi et al.
8) modern environment 2003
Salinity <5% Qz fluid inclusion Simmons et al.
2005

Caution: values will vary with different temperatures, pressures and unusual wall-rock interactions
 Fluid Characteristics – Temp. + Salinity
Au-Ag low Typical values Evidence References Salinity from ice
sulphidation melting temperature
Temperature 150-300°C Qz fluid inclusion Simmons et al. and temperature from
2005, Cooke and homogenisation
Simmons, 2000 temperature

Depth 100 – 500 m Qz fluid inclusion + Cooke and

(pressure) (40 – 400 bars) modern environment Simmons, 2000,
below palaeo- Sherlock et al.
water table 1995
Oxidation Reduced Min assemblage and Cooke and
state (fO2) Qz fluid inclusion Simmons, 2000 Maybe
Cooke and Simmons, 2000, Constants: P?
Sulfidation Low (fS2 -10 Min assemblages and Einaudi et al. CO2
state (fS2) to -18) modern environment 2003
pH Neutral (6.5 – Fluid inclusions and Einaudi et al.
8) modern environment 2003
Salinity <5% Qz fluid inclusion Simmons et al.
Simmons et al.
2005 2005,
compilation of
deposit and
real world data
 Fluid characteristics – Pressure
Au-Ag low Typical values Evidence References
sulphidation
Temperature 150-300°C Qz fluid inclusion Simmons et al.
2005, Cooke and
Simmons, 2000
Depth 100 – 500 m Qz fluid inclusion + Cooke and
(pressure) (40 – 400 bars) modern environment Simmons, 2000,
below palaeo- Sherlock et al.
water table 1995
Oxidation Reduced Min assemblage and Cooke and
state (fO2) Qz fluid inclusion Simmons, 2000
Sulfidation Low (fS2 -10 Min assemblages and Einaudi et al.
state (fS2) to -18) modern environment 2003
pH Neutral (6.5 – Fluid inclusions and Einaudi et al.
8) modern environment 2003
Salinity <5% Qz fluid inclusion Simmons et al. Pressure derived from homogenization
2005 temperature and depth using Henley
(1984b) (Sherlock et al. 1995) data from
McLaughlin mine, Cooke and Simmons,
(2000) stat this is representative
 Fluid characteristics – Sulphidation
Au-Ag low Typical values Evidence References
sulphidation
Temperature 150-300°C Qz fluid inclusion Simmons et al.
2005, Cooke and
Simmons, 2000
Depth 100 – 500 m Qz fluid inclusion + Cooke and
(pressure) (40 – 400 bars) modern environment Simmons, 2000,
below palaeo- Sherlock et al.
water table 1995
Oxidation Reduced Min assemblage and Cooke and
state (fO2) Qz fluid inclusion Simmons, 2000
Sulfidation Low (fS2 -10 Min assemblages and Einaudi et al.
state (fS2) to -18) modern environment 2003 Sulphidation
varies with
pH Neutral (6.5 – Fluid inclusions and Einaudi et al. temperature
8) modern environment 2003
Einaudi et al. 2003, mineral reactions at 1 bar, data
Salinity <5% Qz fluid inclusion Simmons et al. is from deposits and present day examples, diagram
2005 includes porphyry, high and low sulphidation systems

Sulphur in solution as H2S or HS- (sulphides)

 Fluid Genesis
 Fluid characteristics indicate a reduced, low salinity, low
sulphidation fluid
 > 65% 2 phase liquid and vapour fluid inclusions supports the
meteoric source + some nearly pure vapour types (Cooke and
Simmon, 2000)
 Stable isotopes indicate strong meteoric component, and minor High sulphidation
magmatic addition system has high
magmatic
 Noble gas geochemistry exists for the Axi deposit in Xinjiang China, component
3He/4He range is 0.0218-0.138 Ra, it indicates the fluid is mostly
from the crust with negliable mantle input (intrusion input) (Zhai et
al. 2009)

Low sulphidation system has strong meteoric

component and only 0-10% magmatic addition
Zhai et al. 2009 Simmons et al. 2005, data compilation
Transportation of Au
 Gold is soluble in sulphide complexes in these
conditions and therefore the main transport ligand
 The meteoric water P-Sal.-T constituent results in the In Robb (2005),
from Wood
fluid being in equilibrium with the typical propylitic (1998), fluid at
alteration in the host rock (Einaudi et al. 2003) 200 ̊C, saturated
water vapour
 Allows gold to be transported significant distances and aCl- = 1.0
from the source region, typical focused along
structures, driven by the heat from the intrusion
driving the convection
 Brown (1986) through direct sampling in the Taupo
volcanic range, New Zealand tested 1.5 µg/kg Au and
8 µg/kg Ag e.g. 1 Moz Au flows through the system
every 6,400 yr

Cooke and Simmons, 2000

 3 effectively chemical reactions cause Au deposits
(Cooke & Simmons, 2000)
 1. boiling (degassing of H2S)

 2. mixing with oxidized water

 3. wall-rock (reactive Fe enriched) reaction

 4. But Simmons et al., (2005) amend the important of water table

(not well documented), rather than wall-rock reaction.
08/07/2020
 Boiling mechanism
1. Distinct texture & mineralogy of gauge assemblage: Bladed
Carbonate + Adularia + lattice textured quartz. Steam-heated
alteration: Kaolinite±Alunite±Native S – opaline silica.
pH increased with the degassing process (acidic gases: CO 2 and
H2S).

2. Evidence from modern geothermal well, Ohaaki-Broadlands

geothermal field, New Zealand (Brown, 1986).
mostly chalcopyrite, 4-6 wt% Au and 2.5-30 wt% Ag. Brown concluded that the boiling
processing released the gold

3. Fluid inclusion data from LS system

08/07/2020
Hedenquist et al. (1996)
 Mixing with oxidized water

 1. boiling (degassing of H2S)

 2. mixing with oxidized water

 3. wall-rock (reactive Fe enriched) reaction

 4. But Simmons et al., (2005) amend the important of water table

(not well documented), rather than wall-rock reaction.
08/07/2020

Johnson et al ， (1992) Benning & Seward ， (1996) Gammons et al ， (1995)

 Paleo-water table position

 Water table determined the location

of where the Redox change sharply
due to the availability of oxygen.

 It also defines the vertical positon of

epithermal environment (Sillitoe,
1993).

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http://www.uni.edu/~andersow/geologyandwater.html
 Fluid Inclusion evidence for boiling and mixing

Point A: the parent composition similar

to deep chloride water.

Point B: the composition of peripheral

CO2- rich steam-heated water.

Trajectory Ⅰ: Boiling without any

dissolved gas.

Trajectory Ⅱ: Mixing process also affect

both temperatures.

Trajectory Ⅲ: Boiling with significant

amount of CO2

Cooke & Simmons, 2000

Trajectory Ⅲ’: combination of Boiling 08/07/2020

and mixing processes.

 Example: McLaughlin Mine
(Sherlock ， 1995)
 1. Gold and silever restrict to the upper 350m to
sinter, with Au/Ag decreasing with depth.

 2. Steep thermal gradient and high pressure near

surface / pressure release during boiling.

 3. Decrease gas content with decrease depth and Boiling

temperature
temperature. for hydro-
lithostatic
condition

 4. Pressure, temperature and gases loss, spatially

show a good congruent relationship which implies the
boiling process.

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 Additional water table
Genesis model
Fluid in equilibrium to Sulphide
host rocks so metals complexes
transported transport gold
significant distances

Simmons et al., 2005

Primary
precipitation by
boiling, secondary Fluid likely
mixing transported along
structures or any
Additional water zone of high
table control permeability

Mostly meteoric water

08/07/2020
Rock undergoing with minor magmatic
propylitic alt. addition Hedenquist et al. 2000
References

 Simmons et al., 2005. Geological Characteristics of Epithermal precious and

base metal deposits. Economic Geology 100th Anniversary volume, pp 485-522
 Cooke & Simmons, 2000. Characteristics and Genesis of Epithermal Gold
Deposits. SEG Reviews, Vol(13): 221-244
 Benning & Seward, 1996. Hydrosulfide complexing of Au(Ⅰ) in hydrothermal
solutions from 150 to 400˚C and 500 to 1500 bars. Geochemica et
Cosmochimica Acta, Vol(60): 1849-1871
 Sherlock et al., 1995. Origin of Mclaughlin Mine sheeted vein complex: metal
zoning, fluid inclusion, and isotope evidence. Economic Geogy, Vol(90): 2156-
2181