7.

Improvement phase

Objectives of Improvement phase

Normal Distribution

Pareto analysis

Control charts

Root Cause Analysis

Process flowcharting

Failure Mode & Effect Analysis

Quality Function Deployment

Design of Experiments ( DOE )

Objectives

• To develop a proposed solution to the

existing problems.
• To confirm that the proposed solution will
meet the desired quality improvement
goals.
• To identify resources required for
successful implementation of the solution.
• To plan and execute actual
improvements.
Understanding Normal Distribution
Introduction

In real life normally the process output follows the pattern of normal
distribution. This can be best explained with the help of dice.

A dice has six faces. When the dice is rolled on, chance of appearing
a number from 1, 2, …5, 6 on top of the dice is one in six.
 A Dice

Chance of appearing 3 on top, is one in six or 1/6

 Assumptions

Each dice represents a cause.

Number appearing on top of the dice represents contribution of that dice

(cause) to the total effect.

Sum of the numbers appearing on top of each dice represents the total
effect.
 Case - When Only One Factor/Dice is present

Let us roll the dice say 300 times.

Since there is only one dice, the number appearing on top and the
sum are same.

Out of 300 rolling of dice, number of times we get the number as 1,

2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 is approximately 50 (300/6). If we make histogram
of sums then we get uniform distribution.
 Total Effect With only One Dice ( Factor )

N=300
50
40
Frequency

30
20
10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Sum of numbers
Case - When Only Two Factors are present

The sum of the numbers appearing on top varies between 2, 3, 4 ….10,

11, 12.

Chances of getting sum as 2 (1+1) and 12 (6+6) is (1/6)×(1/6) = 1/36,

which is low.

Chances of getting sum as 7 is highest because there are several

combinations; (6+1), (2+5), (3+4).

Histogram for the sums is triangular.

 Total Effect With two Dices ( Factors )

50 N=300

40

30
Frequency

20

10

2 4 6 8 10 12

Sum of numbers
 Case - When 3 Factors are Present

The sum of the numbers appearing on

top varies between 3, 4, 5,6,7,8,9 ….16,
17, 18.

Chances of getting sum as 3 (1+1+1)

and 18 (6+6+6) is (1/6)×(1/6)×(1/6) =
1/216, which is quite low.

Chances of getting sum as 10 is more

because there are several combinations.

Distribution pattern for the sum is a

curve with hump.
 Total Effect With 3 dices ( Factors )

50

40

30
Frequency

20

10

3 6 9 12 15 18

Sum of Numbers
 Case - Total Effect when 4 Dices ( Factors )

50 With only 4 factors, the distribution of outcome is

near normal
40

30
Frequency

20

10

4 8 12 16 20 24
Sum of Numbers
 Systems In Real Life

In real life we have several factors which effect the output of a

system. For example, in manufacturing setup, we have as
bearing play, coolant quality, voltage fluctuation, variation in
material property, changes in humidity, operator’s mood,
inspection methods etc. Each one of them has different
pattern. They act on the process simultaneously with different
combinations; hence the process output follows the normal
distribution.
 In Real Life, We have Normal Distribution

Output of Process
is normal Distribution

Operator

Hydraulic Fluctuation Material

Voltage Fluctuation Humidity

Time
Coolant

Bearing Play Inspection Methods

 Pareto analysis

The Pareto principle is to concentrate on “vital few” rather than

“trivial many” in tackling quality problems. The Pareto diagram is a
tool for identifying few actually important causes for defectives which
result in large proportion of defectives, instead of concentrating on
large number of causes which contributes to a small proportion of
the total defectives.
 Constructing a Pareto chart

A Pareto diagram is a bar chart of number of defectives with bars

representing the number of defectives due to different sources
arranged in descending order of their importance. A line graph of
cumulative number of defectives (Ogive) is also drawn in the same
chart. The causes are given along the x axis, the number of
defectives are given on the left y axis and the cumulative
%defectives is given along the right y axis.
 Constructing a Pareto chart

Data on defective cords

S No. Source of defectives No. of Percentage

defectives defectives

1 Wrong Ply TPM 75 25

2 Plyless Feeding 150 50
3 Single end 30 10
4 Wrong Cable TPM 45 15

Total 300 100

 Arranging data in descending order

Data on defective cords

S No. Source of defectives No. of Percentage Cumulative

defectives defectives % defectives

1 Plyless Feeding 150 50 50

2 Wrong Ply TPM 75 25 75
3 Wrong Cable TPM 45 15 90
4 Single end 30 10 100

Total 300 100

 Pareto analysis of defective cords
300
100%
250
80%
200
60%
150
40%
100

50 20%

0 0%
Plyless Wrong ply Wrong Single
feeding TPM cable TPM end
Control Charts
1. Introduction
Introduction

Quality control charts, are graphs on which the

quality of the product is plotted as manufacturing
or servicing is actually proceeding.

By enabling corrective actions to be taken at the

earliest possible moment and avoiding unnecessary
corrections, the charts help to ensure the
manufacture of uniform product or providing
consistent services which complies with the
specification.
 History of Control Chart

Mr. Shewart, an American, has been credited with

the invention of control charts for variable and
attribute data in the 1920s, at the Bell Telephone
Industries.

The term ‘Shewart Control Charts’ is in common

use.
 Dynamic Picture of Process

Plotting graph, charting and presenting the data

as a picture is common to process control method,
used throughout the manufacturing and service
industries.

Converting data into a picture is a vital step

towards greater and quicker understanding of the
process.
 Confidence While Control Charting

Control charting enables everyone to make

decision and to know the degree of confidence
with which the decisions are made. There may be
some margin of error. No technique, even 100%
automated inspection, can guarantee the validity
of the result; there is always some room to
doubt.
 Control Charts

Statistically based control chart is a device intended

to be used

- at the point of operation

- by the operator of that process
- to asses the current situation
- by taking sample and plotting sample result

To enable the operator to decide about the

process.
 What Control Chart Does?

It graphically, represents the output of the

process.
And
Uses statistical limits and patterns of plot,
for decision making
 Analogy to Traffic Signal

A control chart is like a traffic signal, the

operation of which is based on evidence
from samples taken at random intervals.
 Analogy to Traffic Signal

Go
No action on Process

Wait and Watch

Stop
Investigate/Adjust
 Decision About The Process

Go

To let the process continue to run without any adjustment.

This means only common causes are present.

Decision About the Process

Wait and watch

Be careful and seek for more information

This is the case where presence of trouble is possible

Decision About the Process

Stop
Take action ( Investigate/Adjust )

This means that there is practically no doubt a special cause has

crept in the system. Process has wandered and corrective actions
must be taken, otherwise defective items will be produced.
2. Why control charts
 Why Control Chart?

To ensure that the output of the process is ‘Normal’

 Whether Output is Normal?

Both histogram and control chart can tell us whether the

output is normal? However,
Histogram views the process as history ,
as the entire output together.
Control chart views the process in real time,
at different time intervals as the process progresses.
 Histogram: a History of Process Output

16
14
Frequency

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
kg
 Control Chart Views Process in Real Time
Output of the process in real time

Target
Mean

UCLx

Target
LCLx
UCLr
Range

Time Intervals
 Why Control Chart?

It helps in finding
Is there any change in location of process
mean in real time?
 Change in Location of Process Mean

Process with Process with

mean at less Process with
mean at more
than target mean at Target
than target

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
 Why Control Chart?

It helps in finding
Is there any change in the spread
of the process in real time?
 Change in Spread of Process

Spread due
Larger spread due
to common causes
to special causes

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
 Why Control Chart?

To keep the cost of production minimum

Since the control chart is maintained in real time, and gives us a
signal that some special cause has crept into the system, we can take
timely action. Timely action enables us to prevent manufacturing of
defective. Manufacturing defective items is non value added activity;
it adds to the cost of manufacturing, therefore must be avoided.
By maintaining control chart we avoid 100% inspection, and thus save
cost of verification.
 Why Control Chart?

Pre-requisite for process capability studies

Process capability studies, are based on premises that the process

during the study was stable i.e. only common causes were present.
This ensures that output has normal distribution. The stability of the
process can only be demonstrated by maintaining control chart during
the study.
 Why Control Chart?

Decision in regards to production process

Control chart helps in determining whether we should :

- let the process to continue without adjustment
- seek more information
- stop the process for investigation/adjustment.
3. Basic steps for control charting
 Basic Steps for Control Charts

Step No. 1

Identify quality characteristics of product or process that affects

“fitness for use”.

Maintaining control chart is an expensive activity. Control charts

should be maintained only for critical quality characteristics. Design of
Experiments is one of the good source to find the critical quality
characteristics of the process.
 Basic Steps for Control Charts

Step No . 2

Design the sampling plan and decide method of its measurement.

At this step we decide, how many units will be in a sample and how
frequently the samples will be taken by the operator.
 Basic Steps for Control Charts

Step No. 3

Take samples at different intervals and plot statistics of the sample

measurements on control chart.

Mean, range, standard deviation etc are the statistics of

measurements of a sample. On a mean control chart, we plot the
mean of sample and on a range control chart, we plot the range of the
sample.
 Basic Steps for Control Charts

Step No. 4

Take corrective action - when a signal for significant change in

process characteristic is received.

Here we use OCAP (Out of Control Action Plan) to investigate, as

why a significant change in the process has occurred and then take
corrective action as suggested in OCAP, to bring the process under
control.
 Summary of Control Chart Techniques

In ‘Control Chart Technique’ we have

 Quality characteristics
 Sampling procedure
 Plotting of statistics
 Corrective action
4. Typical control charts
 Elements of Typical Control Chart

1. Horizontal axis for sample number

2. Vertical axis for sample statistics e.g.
mean, range, standard deviation of sample.
3. Target Line
4. Upper control line
5. Upper warning line
6. Lower control line
7. Lower warning line
8. Plotting of sample statistics
9. Line connecting the plotted statistics
 Elements of Typical Control Chart
Upper control line

Upper warning line

Sample Statistics

Target

Lower warning line

Lower control line

1 2 3 4 5
Sample Number
5. Types of control chart
 Types of Control Chart

We have two main types of control charts. One for variable data and
the other for attribute data.

Since now world-wide, the current operating level is ‘number of

parts defective per million parts produced’, aptly described as ‘PPM’;
control charts for ‘attribute data’ has no meaning. The reason being
that the sample size for maintaining control chart at the ‘PPM’ level,
is very large, perhaps equal to lot size, that means 100%
inspection.
Most Commonly Used Variable Control Charts

Following are the most commonly used variable control charts:

To track the accuracy of the process

- Mean control chart or x-bar chart

To track the precision of the process

- Range control chart
Most Common Type of Control Chart for Variable Data

For tracking
Accuracy

Mean
control chart

Variable
Control
Chart

For tracking
Precision

Range
control chart
6. Concepts behind control charts
Understanding effect of shift of
process mean
 Case When Process Mean is at Target

Target Process
L Mean
U
-3s +3 s U-L=6s

42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Chances of getting a reading beyond U & L is almost nil

 Case - Small Shift of the Process Mean

Small shift in process Process

Mean Shaded area
L U shows the
probability of
Target getting
a reading
U-L = 6 s beyond U

42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Chances of getting a reading outside U is small

 Case - Large Shift of the Process Mean
Large shift in process
Process Shaded area
Mean shows the
Target
L U probability of
getting
a reading
U-L = 6 s beyond U

42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Chances of getting a reading outside U is large

 Summary of Effect of Process Shift

When there is no shift in the process nearly all the observations fall
within -3 s and + 3 s.
When there is small shift in the mean of process some observations
fall outside original -3 s and +3 s zone.
Chances of an observation falling outside original -3 s and + 3 s
zone increases with the increase in the shift of process mean.
 Conclusion from Normal Distribution

When an observation falls within original +3 s and -3 s zone of

mean of a process, we conclude that there is no shift in the mean
of process. This is so because falling of an observation between
these limits is a chance.

When an observation falls beyond original +3 s and -3 s zone of

process mean, we conclude that there is shift in location of the
process
7. Distribution of population
vs
Distribution of mean
 Distribution of Mean of Samples

Since on the control charts for accuracy we plot and watch the trend
of the means and ranges of the samples, it is necessary that we
should understand the behaviour of
distribution of mean of samples.
 Distribution of Averages of Samples

Suppose we have a lot of 1000 tablets, and let us say, weight of the
tablets follows a normal distribution having a standard deviation, s.
Let us take a sample of n tablets. Calculate mean of the sample and
record it. Continue this exercise of taking samples, calculating the
mean of samples and recording, 1000 times.
The mean of samples shall have normal distribution with standard
deviation, Sm = (s÷ n). Distribution of population and ‘means of
sample’ shall have same means.
 Distribution - Population Vs Sample Means
Distribution of
means of samples
[standard deviation = (s÷ n)]

Distribution of population
(standard deviation = s

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Quality Characteristics
Control and Warning Limits for Mean Control
Chart

If we know the standard deviation of the population, say sand the

number of units in a sample, say n; then the control and warning limits
are calculated as follows:
If desired target of the process is T, then
Upper control limit, UCL = T + 3 (s÷ n)
Upper warning limit. UWL = T + 2 (s÷ n)
Lower control limit, LCL = T - 3 (s÷ n)
Lower warning limit, LWL = T - 2 (s÷ n)
Control Limits for Mean Control Chart

Distribution of mean of samples

UCL
UWL
3 (s ÷ n) 2 (s ÷ n)
Target
3 (s÷ n) 2 (s ÷ n)
LWL
LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sample Number
8. Flow Chart for Establishing Control
Chart
 Start

Decide subgroup size

Record observations

Find mean and range of

each subgroup

Calculate mean range, R

 Flow Chart for Establishing Control Chart

UCLx = T + A2 x R
LCLx = T - A2 x R
UCLr = D4 x R
LCLr = D3 x R

Is any
Yes
sub-group mean or range Drop that
out side the control Group
limit ?

No
 Flow Chart for Control Chart

Select suitable scale for

mean control chart and
range control chart

Draw Lines for

Target, UCL, UWL, LCL & LWL for mean
Mean range, UCL , UWL, LCL & LWL for range

Stop
9. Interpreting control charts
 Interpreting Control Chart

The control chart gets divided in three zones.

Zone - 1 If the plotted point falls in this zone, do not make any
adjustment, continue with the process.

Zone - 2 If the plotted point falls in this zone then special cause
may be present. Be careful watch for plotting of another sample(s).

Zone - 3 If the plotted point falls in this zone then special cause has
crept into the system, and corrective action is required.
 Zones for Mean Control Chart

Zone - 3 Action
UCL
Zone - 2 Warning
UWL
Zone - 1 Continue
Sample Mean

Target
Zone - 1 Continue

Zone - 2 Warning
LWL
LCL
Zone - 3 Action

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sample Number
 Interpreting Control Charts

Since the basis for control chart theory follows the normal
distribution, the same rules that governs the normal distribution
are used to interpret the control charts. These rules include:
- Randomness.
- Symmetry about the centre of the distribution.
- 99.73% of the population lies between - 3 s of and + 3 s the
centre line.
- 95.4% population lies between -2 s and + 2 s of the centre line.
 Interpreting Control Chart

If the process output follows these rules, the process is said to be

stable or in control with only common causes of variation present.
If it fails to follow these rules, it may be out of control with special
causes of variation present. These special causes must be found
and corrected.
 Interpreting Control Chart

A single point above or below the control limits.

Probability of a point falling outside the control limit is less than 0.14%.
This pattern may indicate:

- a special cause of variation from a material,

equipment, method, operator etc.
- mismeasurement of a part or parts.
- miscalculated or misplotted data point.
 Interpreting Control Chart

One point outside

control limit

UCL
UWL
Statistics

Target
LWL
LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample Number
 Interpreting Control Chart

Seven consecutive points are falling on one side of the

centre line.

Probability of a point falling above or below the centre line is 50-50.

The probability of seven consecutive points falling on one side of
the centre line is 0.78% ( 1 in 128)

This pattern indicates a shift in the process output from changes in

the equipment, methods, or material or shift in the measurement
system.
 Interpreting Control Chart
Seven consecutive points on one
side of the centre line

UCL
UWL
Statistics

Target
LWL
LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample Number
 Interpreting Control Chart

Two consecutive points fall between warning limit and

corresponding control limit.

In a normal distribution, the probability of two consecutive points falling

between warning limit and corresponding control limit is 0.05%
(1 in 2000).

This could be due to large shift in the process, equipment, material,

method or measurement system.
 Interpreting Control Chart
Two consecutive points between warning limit and
corresponding control limit

UCL
UWL
Statistics

Target
LWL
LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample Number
 Interpreting Control Chart

Two points out of three consecutive points fall between

warning limit and corresponding control limit.

This could be due to large shift in the process, equipment, material,

method or measurement system.
 Interpreting Control Chart
Two points out of three consecutive points
between warning limit and corresponding
control limit

UCL
UWL
Statistics

Target
LWL
LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample Number
 Interpreting Control Chart

A trend of seven points in a row upward or downward

demonstrates non-randomness.

This happens in the following cases:

- Gradual deterioration or wear in equipment.

- Improvement or deterioration in technique.
- Operator fatigue.
 Interpreting Control Chart

Seven consecutive points having

upward trend
UCL
UWL
Statistics

Target
LWL
LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample Number
 Interpreting Control Chart
Seven consecutive points having
downward trend

UCL
UWL
Statistics

Target
LWL
LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample Number
 Root cause analysis

In any organization numerous problems exist in all facets of its

activities. The efficiency and survival of the organization depends on
how promptly these problems are recognized and their root causes
are isolated and eliminated.
A systematic analysis of each potential problem area should be
carried out to recognize the root causes which are responsible for
creating the problem. This analysis is called Root Cause Analysis.
This is more of a philosophy or a discipline rather than any isolated
technique for continuous improvement.
Tools & techniques for root cause analysis

 Ishikawa or cause and effect diagram

 Histogram
 Pareto Analysis
 Control charts
 Brain Storming
 Flow Charting
 Process Capability Analysis
 Scatter diagram and regression analysis
 Statistically Design Experiment ( Design of Experiments )
 Cause & Effect diagram - Major and subsidiary
causes

Material Methods Environment

Procedures Noise level

Assemblies

Temperature

Consumables Humidity
Components Accounting

Suppliers Lighting
Policies
Effect
Variability
Instruments
Training
Experience Tests
Technology

Tooling
Attitude Gauging

Skill Fixtures Counting

Men Machine Measurement

 Example of Cause & Effect diagram
Material Methods Environment
Inadequate High Noise level
High lead time process control

poor review Heat

system
High inventory
Poor QC
Poor quality
of vendors Poor Lighting
Poor MIS Low
operating
High profit
Inadequate
variation Instruments
Inadequate
Training
Lack
of Experience
Old machines

Poor No SPC
Maintenance

Low Frequent Inadequate

motivation breakdowns measurement
Men Machine Measurement
Typical causes for non conformance/ defects
Machine factors

• Inadequate process capability

• Incorrectly designed tooling
• Worn tools, jigs or dies
• Poor maintenance
• Equipment effected by environmental factors such as heat,
humidity etc.
Typical causes for non conformance/ defects
Material factors

• Use of untested materials

• Mix-up of materials
• Substandard material accepted on concession because of non-
availability of correct material
• Inconsistency in specifications on the part of vendors
Typical causes for non conformance/ defects
Men factors

• Incorrect knowledge of setting up machines

• Careless operator and inadequate supervision
• Undue rush by the operator to achieve quality targets
• Lack of understanding of drawing instructions relating to a
process
• Operator does not possess requisite skill for operating machines
Typical causes for non conformance/ defects
Method factors

• Inadequate process controls

• Non availability of proper test equipments
• Test equipment out of calibration
• Vague inspection/ testing instructions
• Inspectors do not possess the necessary skill
 Click on the boxes to enter your Cause & Effect

Material Methods Environment

Click to enter

click

Men Machine Measurement

 Process flow Charting

Flow charting provides the basis for understanding the standard

process procedures, the relationship between people and work to be
done. Flowcharting is a very good tool for understanding and
identifying process bottlenecks such as delays, excessive
transportation, waiting time and queuing time. It also identifies key
customers, suppliers and process owners by operational work unit,
performance level, quality level and productivity at each process
point. Flow charts can also identify source of errors, decision points
and non-value adding operations.
Sample : Seeking customer feedback and taking corrective action flow diagram.

Customer
Issue satisfaction
owners dept.

International
Surveys Customer marketing
satisfaction •Review actions
dept •Emerging issues
Administration
•Action plan
Complaints
•Issue Domestic
identification Marketing
Customer
•Prioritization
Critical •Ownership Technical
Situations

Delivery

Other
Service

•Develop action plans

•Resolve issues
•Improve
Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis (FMEA)
Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis (FMEA)

FMEA is a structured analysis for identifying ways & methods

in which the product or processes can fail and then plan to
prevent those failures. FMEA is a proactive tool for
reducing defects and non-conformities.
 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

FMEA is a structured approach in :-

• Identifying ways in which a process can fail to meet critical
customer requirements.
• Estimating the risk of causes with regard to these failures.
• Evaluating control plan for preventing these failures.
• Prioritizing the actions for improving the process.

FMEA is an extremely important tool for each phase of Six

Sigma strategy viz. Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control.
Advantages of FMEA

• For improving the reliability and safety of the products.

• For improving customer satisfaction.
• Tracking actions to reduce non-conformities.
• New product development.
Definition of terms

Failure Mode : It is a manner in which a part or a process can

fail to meet specifications. It is usually associated with defect or
non-conformities.

Examples : Missing part, Oversized, Undersized, Incorrect

price, Offspec parts.
Definition of terms

Cause : Causes are sources of variation which are associated

with key process inputs. Cause can be best defined as a
deficiency which results in a failure mode.

Examples : Instructions not followed, Lack of experience,

Incorrect documentation, Poor handling etc.
Definition of terms

Effect : Effect is the impact on the customer (both internal &

external) if the failure mode is not prevented or corrected.
Examples : Customer dissatisfaction, Frequent product
breakdowns, Customer downtime.
Relationship of cause, failure mode &
effect

Failure
Cause Effect
Mode
 FMEA through Cause & Effect Diagram
Causes Causes Causes

Prevent
or Detect

Failure
Mode

Effect

Causes Causes Causes

 Steps in FMEA process

1. Develop a process map and identify process steps.

2. List key process outputs for satisfying internal and
external customer requirements.
3. List key process inputs for each process steps.
4. List ways the process inputs can vary (causes) and
identify associated failure modes and effects.
5. Assign severity occurrence and detection rating for each
cause.
 Steps in FMEA process

6. Calculate risk priority number ( RPN) for each potential

failure mode.
7. Determine recommended actions to reduce RPN’s.
8. Establish time frame for corrective actions.
9. Take corrective actions.
10. Put all controls in place.
 Ranking terms used in FMEA calculations
Scale:1(Best) to 10 ( Worst)

• Severity (SEV) : Severity indicates how severe is the impact of

the effect on the customer.
• Occurrence (OCC) : This indicates the likelihood of the cause
of the failure mode to occur.
• Detection (DET) : This indicates the likelihood of the current
system to detect the cause or failure mode if it occurs.
• Risk priority number : This number is used to place priority to
items for better quality planning.
RPN = SEV X OCC X DET

See next slides for specimen best to worst ratings on a 10 point scale.
 Best to Worst ratings for FMEA
calculations
Rating Degree of Severity Likelihood of Occurrence Ability to detect

1 Customer will not at all observe Very remote possibility Sure that the potential failure
the adverse effect will be detected & prevented
before reaching the next
customer

2 Customer will experience Low failure with supporting Almost sure that the potential
slight discomfort documents failure will be detected before
reachig the next customer

3 Customer will experience Low failure without supporting Less chances that the
annoyance because of slight documents potential failure will reach the
degradation of performance next customer undetected

4 Customer dissatisfied due to Occasional failures Some controls may detect

reduced performance the potential from reaching the
next customer

5 Customer is uncomfortable Moderate failure rate with Moderate chances that the
supporting documents potential failure will reach the
next customer
 Best to Worst ratings for FMEA calculations
Rating Degree of Severity Likelihood of Occurrence Ability to detect

6 Warranty repairs Modearate failure rate without Controls are not likely to detect
supporting documents or prevent the potential failure
from reaching the next
customer

7 High degree of customer High failure rate with supporting Less chances that the potential
dissatisfaction documents failure will be detected or
prevented before reaching
the next customer

8 Vey high degree of customer High failure rate with supporting Very less chances that the
dissatisfaction documents potential failure will be detected
or prevented before reaching
the next customer

9 Negative impact on the Failure is almost certain Existing controls will not detect
customer the potential failure

10 Negative impact on the Assured failure Existing controls will not detect
customer, people & society the potential failure
 FMEA Form: ( Column 1 to 9 )
Rank severity Rank how well
Rank occurrence List how the cause
on 1 to 10 cause/failure
on a 1 to 10 is presently
scale can be detected
scale being controlled
on 1 to 10 scale

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Process Potential failure mode Potential failure effect SEV Potential causes OCC Current Controls DET RPN
Part No.

1
2
3
4
5

List failure List effects List causes

RPN=
modes for each of each for each failure
SEV*OCC*DET
step failure mode mode
 FMEA Form contd: ( column 10 to 15 )
Designates people RPN is recalculated
responsible for
on completion of
corrective action
corrective action

10 11 12 13 14 15
Actions Recommended Responsibility SEV OCC DET RPN

List actions
recommended
on RPN pareto
 Quality Function Deployment ( QFD )

No matter how effectively a company meets the initial needs of the

customers, it must remain constantly alert and responsive to the changing
and increasing needs of the customers. If the organization is not responsive
to these changing needs, the passage of time will erode the early
competitive advantages.
 QFD

QFD is a scientific technique for translating the voice of the customer

into development of products and services. It is a complete product
planning process as opposed to problem solving and analysis. The
technique was invented by Akashi Fukuhara of Japan and first
applied with very good results at Toyota.
Putting QFD into practice
Step 1 : List customer requirements and rank

Importance
Customer Requirements on 10 point
scale

Very Important

Moderately Important

Slightly important
Step 2 : List technical requirements to meet customer requirements

Technical Requirements
Step 3 : Comparing product with the nearest competitor

Complaints
Customer competitive
evaluation on 5 point scale( 5 high , 1 low )

Rank
1 2 3 4 5 Action

Customer Requirements

Competitor product Our product

Step 4 : Establish relationship between customer requirement
and technical requirements

Technical Requirements
Strong relation

Moderate relation

Weak relation

Rank
Customer Requirements
 QFD matrix overview after step 4

Technical Requirements

Competitive evaluation

Rank
Customer Requirements
Step 5 : Do competitive technical Assessment

Technical Requirements
Competitive evaluation

Customer Requirements Rank

5
Competitive 4
Technical Competitor assessment
3
Assessment 2
Our assessment
1
Step 6 : Mention operational targets or action points

Technical Requirements
Competitive evaluation

Customer Requirements Rank

Competitive
Technical
Assessment

Operational
New Product
Targets
 QFD - Customers Voice

The whole process of the QFD can be linked to GIGO ( Garbage in garbage
out ). This is because, if the voice of the customer has not been captured
properly, the final product will also not be the one actually desired by the
market place. It is therefore extremely important to capture the correct
voice of the customer before taking any other step in the QFD planning
process. We will explain this by the forthcoming example of new car
development.
New car development - A case study
 Survey

A product development team wants to determine what the customers want

in a new car. After interviewing about 120 car drivers, the team came out
with the following chart of the customer requirements :
 Desired product attributes in a new car
Requirement Rank
• Easy to drive 5

• Quiet riding , no squeaks or rattles 4.8

• Excellently finished 4.6

• Smooth riding even on rough road 4.5

• Excellent gas mileage 3.9

3.8
• Aerodynamic design
3.7
• Hugs the road
3.6
• Free from breakdowns
3.5
• Fast acceleration
3.4
• Virtually maintenance free
3.3
• Durable - will last 150000 miles
3.2
• Protects the driver and passenger in case of accident
3
• Classic styling
2.2
• Has instruments to read critical functions
2
• Has many electronic devises
1.4
• Has convertible roof
 Translating into technical requirements

The product development team is all set to translate the requirements of the
customer into technical requirements as per the QFD matrix.

Fallacy : The survey is based on aggregate data management and its basic
assumption is that there is one best answer for every one.
 Classification of needs

The product development team is asked by the CEO to classify the needs of
various drivers and then give it a rating instead of proceeding simply with
the aggregate data management. After the market survey the product
development team divided the customer into two broad categories :-
1. The performance driver and
2. The practical driver
The team then came with the following findings -
 Two different profiles of desired product attributes
Performance driver 5 Practical driver

•Fast acceleration •Excellent gas mileage

•Aerodynamic design •Virtually maintenance free
•Hugs the road 4 •Free from breakdowns

•Easy to drive
•Easy to drive •Durable
•Excellently finished 3 •Quiet riding
•Quiet riding •Smooth ride
•Classic styling •Protects driver
•Smooth riding •Excellently finished
2

1
•Free from breakdowns
•Excellent gas mileage •Many electronic devises
•Protects drivers •Aerodynamic design
•Durable •Hugs the road
•Many electronic devices •Instruments to read functions
•Classic styling
•Convertible roof
•Virtually maintenance free •Convertible roof
•Fast acceleration
 Correctly reading the customer’s voice

The classification of the customer requirements clearly reveals

that the attribute which is most important for the performance
driver, is least important for the practical driver and vice versa.
A simple listing of the customer requirements would have
definitely ended up in the development of incorrect product for
the market. Reading the voice of the customer is therefore the
most critical and challenging aspect of the whole QFD process.
 QFD - Conclusion

It is therefore very important that your organization is constantly

looking for the living customers instead of mythological ones created
by aggregate data management. Once the voice of the customer has
been properly captured, translating them into technical requirements
should not be much of a difficulty.
Design of experiments
 Design of experiments

Design of experiments (DOE) is a valuable tool to optimize product

and process designs, to accelerate the development cycle, to reduce
development costs, to improve the transition of products from
research and development to manufacturing and to effectively
trouble shoot manufacturing problems. Today, Design of
Experiments is viewed as a quality technology to achieve
product excellence at lowest possible overall cost.
Objectives of Experimentation

The following are some of the objectives of experimentation in an

industry :
• Improving efficiency or yield
• Finding optimum process settings
• Locating sources of variability
• Correlating process variables with product characteristics
• Comparing different processes, machines, materials etc
• Designing new processes and products.
 Various terms used in Experimentation

In the context of discussion on experimental designs, the

common frequently used terms are :
• factor
• Level
• Treatment combination
• Response
• Effect
• Interaction
 Basic principles of experimentation

Basic principles of Experimentation are :

• Randomization
• Replication
• Local Control
 Basic principles of experimentation

• Randomization : is described as an insurance against

extraneous factors.
• Replication : increases the sensitivity of the experiment i.e
power of detecting differences between treatments.
• Local Control : reduces the effect of natural variability of
materials, environmental conditions etc.
 Planning for experimentation

It is known widely that a properly well planned experiment

helps to achieve better efficiency and hence certain amount of
thinking must be done before deciding to carry out the
experiment and actually conducting the experiment.
 Planning for experimentation

The various steps to be followed in this direction are listed

below :
 Selection of area of study : Pareto analysis
 Proof of the need for experimentation
 Brain storming and Cause & Effect diagram : To list all the
possible factors
 Classification of factors
 Interactions to be studied
 Response and type of model for analysis

Note : Pareto Analysis, Brain storming and Cause & Effect

diagrams have already been covered in the previous slides.
 Proof of the need for experimentation

After having selected the area for experimentation we have to

ensure that the problem is of ‘Break through’ or
‘Improvement’ nature and not a problem of ‘control’ nature.
For this purpose past data should be suitably analyzed and
plotted on some process control chart to check whether the
process is within statistical control or not. If the analysis shows
lack of control or statistical instability, then it is a problem of
‘control’ nature and experimentation may not be needed.
Proof of the need for experimentation

However if the problem is of chronic nature and there is

stability in the process, then it establishes the need for
experimentation. Before deciding to carry out experimentation
the need for experimentation must be established.
 Classification of factors

Tools like brainstorming and cause & effect diagrams helps in

identification of factors and preparing a complete list of the
factors involved in any experiment. Factors listed can be
classified into three categories :
1. Experimental Factors
2. Control Factors
3. Error or Noise Factors
 Classification of factors

1. Experimental factors are those which we really

experiment with by varying them at various levels.
2. Control Factors are those which are kept at a constant
(controlled) level throughout experimentation.
 Classification of factors

3. Error or Noise factors are those which can neither be

changed at our will nor can be fixed at one particular level.
Effect of these factors causes the error component in the
experiment and as such these factors are termed as error or
noise factors.
Note : At the planning stage itself all the factors viz. Experimental, Control and error should
be recognized. This will help to tackle them appropriately during experimentation.
 Response and type of model for analysis

The ultimate observations or data generated by the experiment is

known as the response. The response may be :
• Continuous or measurement type and follows a normal distribution
• Continuous or measurement type but does not follow normal
distribution