Cellular Mobile Communication

Summarized by
Neetesh Purohit
Lecturer, IIIT,
Allahabad, UP, India
http://profile.iiita.ac.in/np/
 The Frequency reuse concept
• Cluster formation
(a group of N cells
of radius ‘R’)

• Each cell of a
cluster should
have different RF
channels
• Distance between cochannel
• Same cluster is cells (D) = R*sqrt(3N)
repeated over
remaining cells • Distance between adjacent cells
(FCA)
(d) = R* sqrt(3)
• Cluster size (N)=
i2+j2+i*j

• Reuse factor = 1/N

• There exists a
tradeoff in selecting
cluster size (N)
– A higher value is
required to minimize
the interference.
Figure 3.2 Method of locating co-
– A lower value ensures channel cells in a cellular system.
more channels over In this example, N = 19 (i.e., i = 3, j
same network thus = 2). (Adapted from [Oet83] ©
better radio capacity. IEEE.)
 Carrier to interference ratio
• For identical cells, using
ranging equation-
C= K/R4

• Assuming D-R~= D+R~= D,

total interference = 6*K/D4

• C/I = 1/(6*q-4)
where, q= D/R = sqrt(3N)
• It proves that C/I is
proportional to N2
Better C/I requires larger N
but the reduction in cell
capacity due to large N is
an undesirable effect
 Methods of reducing Interference
• Umbrella pattern antenna

• Mechanical or electronic tilting of antenna (only 19

degree part of radiation pattern causes interference, which can be
modified by proper feeding the antenna elements)

• Power control technique

– Open loop (transmitted power is inversely proportional to
received power level on other link)
– Closed loop (BS instructs MS to submit some data BER,
S/N etc then take a decision)

• Sectorization
 Sectorization
• Blocking rate may
increase due to division of
channels among sectors
of same cell.

• With sectorization a lower

value of N can be used
i.e. overall capacity will be
increased.

• Hand off rate increases

due to intracell handoffs • Effective number of
(between sector’s of same interfering cells are
cell). In modern BS it can
be locally handled reduced to 2/1 (120/60
degree sector)
 Cell Capacity
• C/I = 1/(6*q-4) thus q=(6*C/I)1/4

• N = q2/3 = (1/3)(6*C/I)1/2

• Cell capacity (m) = (1/N)(Bt/Bc) channels/cell

• Bt = total available BW; Bc = BW of single Channel

• m= (Bt/Bc)(1/sqrt(2/3*C/I))-1

• If a system requires lower C/I then it will have more

capacity
 Assignment

• If same BW (Bt) is allotted to two

different cellular systems which uses
different channel BW’s and have
different requirements of C/I for same
signal quality. Derive an expression
for comparing them in terms of cell
capacity.
Improving coverage and Capacity
• Passive and active repeaters

• Sectorization

• Cell Splitting

• Microcell Zone concept

 Cell Splitting
• Radius of small cell =
R/2

• Area covered = πR2/4

• Required power to
avoid interference=
1/16th (ranging eq.)

• What should be done

to avoid the
interference from large
cells to the small cell?
• The channels are divided in to two
subgroups (A and B).

• ‘A’ is allotted to small cell and all channels of

this subgroup are transmitted with lower
power (1/16th) in larger cells i.e. there will be
a virtual splitting of larger cell.

• As traffic increases more channels are

transferred from B to A and further splitting
of larger cells is done.
 Microcell zone concept
• Every cell has three
zones.

• Channels are not B

C
divided but
dynamically allotted
A
by BS.

• When a user moves

•The required transmitted
from ‘A’ to ‘B’ the power has been reduced to
base station transfer 1/16th thus there will be an
the corresponding improvement in system
channel to zone B. capacity (find an expression)
2.33 times improvement in capacity

Any channel
can be
transmitted in
any of three
cells thus
Dz<D and
Rz=R/2
 Handoff (Handover)
Desirable features Parameter Selection
– Prioritized (guard CH, – RSS =C+I (sometimes
queuing of HO unnecessary HO, sometimes
requests) no HO when required)
– High Success rate – C/I (measurement of ‘I’ is
– High dwell time difficult)
(infrequent) – A matrices of various
– Imperceptible to users parameters

Practical considerations
– HO for high velocity subscribers (umbrella cell approach)
– HO for very slow velocity subscriber (cell dragging problem)
 Algorithms for Handoff
• Single level Th
(high drop rate, frequent HO when a user is moving along
the cell boundary)

• Two level
(After crossing 1st Th user is monitored every 5 sec or so, if
required and potential neighbor is available HO is done.
After crossing 2nd Th unconditional HO is done)

• Power difference HO
(The difference of received power by present and neighbor
BS is calculated. Decision of HO preparation, immediate
HO etc is done.)
• Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO)

• Forced HO
(used for traffic management by controlling a
Handoff, creating a handoff)

• Intersystem handoff (roaming)

 Types of handoff
• Hard (FDMA and TDMA systems)
(both BS and carrier frequency are changed)

• Soft (CDMA systems)

(BS (thus PN) is changed but not the carrier frequency, its
smoother as MS was already processing the signals of this
new BS thus it takes place by selecting appropriate receiver.)

• Softer (CDMA systems)

(between sectors of same BS thus neither BS nor Carrier
frequency is changed but only PN is changes)
 Channel Assignment
Role of standardizing Governing Factors in
agency grouping the channels
– Deciding CH BW – Cochannel
– Numbering channels Interference
– Designating channel
types (traffic, access,
– Adjacent channel
paging, etc)
intereference
Strategies
– Fixed channel assignment
– Dynamic channel assignment
– Channel borrowing strategies
 Trunking theory
• A system which has limited number of
resources is known as a trunk system
(telephone, mobile, etc)

• Trunking theory is about serving a large

number of users in a trunk system and finding
various performance measures.

• Two types of trunk systems are used

– Lost Call Cleared (Erlang-B)
– Lost Call Delayed (Erlang-C)
 Various terms
• Blocked/lost call • Service rate
(a arrived request which (inverse of holding time;
cant be completed, as all number of requests served
resources are busy) in unit time)
• Request Rate • 1- Erlang
(avg. number of requests (a channel is said to have 1-
per unit time) erlang traffic if it is busy all
the time)
• Holding time • Traffic intensity
(avg. duration of a call) (it is a ratio of request rate to
service rate measured in
erlang)
• Grade of Service
(ability of a user to get service in busiest hour. In
telephone system, it is measured as blocking probability
of a call.)

• In cellular mobile systems dropping of calls

should also be considered in defining GOS.

• HO calls have greater priority over new

calls thus for cellular systems

GOS = Pbnew+ a*Pbho; a is any suitable constant

 Lost call delayed system
• P [call delayed] = Erlang-C formula

• P [wait>t|call delayed]= e-(C-A)t/H

• P[wait>t]= P [wait>t|call delayed].P[call delayed]

• Average delay = ∫(0 to ∞)P[wait>t]dt

= P[call delayed] H/(C-A)
 Tips for numerical problems
• For mid-sem numerical problems of chapter 3 and 9.

• Handling the dB or dBm value.

– X in dB= 10 log10(X/1W)
– X in dBm= 10 log10(X/1mW)
– Gain (in dB)= 10 log (Pout/Pin )
= 10log(Pout/1mW)–10log(Pin/1mW) = Pout (dBm)–Pin(dBm)
– Pout (dBm)= Gain (in dB) + Pin (in dBm)
(Gain should always be considered in dB then Pout will have same unit as
that of Pin)

• Trigonometric and geometric laws.

• Reading of Erlang-B & Erlang-C charts and interrelationship

between various traffic parameters.