Radio Propagation: Atmospheric Losses

 Different types of atmospheric losses can perturb radio wave

transmission in satellite systems:
 Atmospheric absorption;

 Atmospheric attenuation;

 Traveling ionospheric disturbances.

 Radio Propagation:
Atmospheric Absorption

 Energy absorption by atmospheric

gases, which varies with the
frequency of the radio waves.
 Two absorption peaks are observed
(for 90º elevation angle):
 22.3 GHz from resonance absorption in
water vapour (H2O)
 60 GHz from resonance absorption in
oxygen (O2)
 For other elevation angles:
 [AA] = [AA]90 cosec 

Source: Satellite Communications, Dennis Roddy, McGraw-Hill

 Radio Propagation:
Atmospheric Attenuation

 Rain is the main cause of atmospheric attenuation

(hail, ice and snow have little effect on attenuation
because of their low water content).
 Total attenuation from rain can be determined by:
 A = L [dB]
 where  [dB/km] is called the specific attenuation, and can be
calculated from specific attenuation coefficients in tabular
form that can be found in a number of publications;
 where L [km] is the effective path length of the signal through
the rain; note that this differs from the geometric path length
due to fluctuations in the rain density.
 Signal Polarisation:
Cross-Polarisation Discrimination
 Depolarisation can cause interference where orthogonal polarisation
is used to provide isolation between signals, as in the case of
frequency reuse.
 The most widely used measure to quantify the effects of polarisation
interference is called Cross-Polarisation Discrimination (XPD):
 XPD = 20 log (E11/E12)

 To counter depolarising effects

circular polarising is sometimes
used.
 Alternatively, if linear
polarisation is to be used,
polarisation tracking equipment
may be installed at the antenna.

Source: Satellite Communications,

Dennis Roddy, McGraw-Hill
 Illustration of the various propagation loss mechanisms on a
typical earth-space path

The ionosphere can cause the electric

vector of signals passing through it to
rotate away from their original
polarization direction, hence causing the sun (a very “hot”
signal depolarization. microwave and
millimeter wave
source of incoherent
The absorptive effects of energy), an
the atmospheric increased noise
constituents cause an contribution results
increase in sky noise to which may cause the
be observed by the C/N to drop below
receiver the demodulator
threshold.

Refractive effects
(tropospheric The ionosphere has its principal impact on
scintillation) cause signals at frequencies well below 10 GHz
signal loss. while the other effects noted in the figure
above become increasingly strong as the
frequency of the signal goes above 10 GHz
Atmospheric attenuation
Attenuation of
the signal in % Example: satellite systems at 4-6 GHz

50

40 rain absorption

30
fog absorption


20

10
atmospheric
absorption

5° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°

elevation of the satellite
 Signal Transmission
Link-Power Budget Formula

 Link-power budget calculations take into account all the gains

and losses from the transmitter, through the medium to the
receiver in a telecommunication system. Also taken into the
account are the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to
propagation and the loss or gain due to the antenna.
 The decibel equation for the received power is:
 [PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] - [LOSSES]
Where:
 [PR] = received power in dBW
 [EIRP] = equivalent isotropic radiated power in dBW
 [GR] = receiver antenna gain in dB
 [LOSSES] = total link loss in dB
 dBW = 10 log10(P/(1 W)), where P is an arbitrary power in
watts, is a unit for the measurement of the strength of a signal
relative to one watt.
 Link Budget parameters
 Transmitter power at the antenna
 Antenna gain compared to isotropic radiator
 EIRP
 Free space path loss
 System noise temperature
 Figure of merit for receiving system
 Carrier to thermal noise ratio
 Carrier to noise density ratio
 Carrier to noise ratio
 Signal Transmission
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
 An isotropic radiator is one that radiates equally in all directions.
 The power amplifier in the transmitter is shown as generating P T watts.
 A feeder connects this to the antenna, and the net power reaching the antenna will be P T minus the losses
in the feeder cable, i.e. PS.
 The power will be further reduced by losses in the antenna such that the power radiated will be P RAD (< PT).

(a) Transmitting antenna

Source: Satellite Communications, Dennis Roddy, McGraw-Hill
 Antenna Gain
 We need directive antennas to get power to go in
wanted direction.
 Define Gain of antenna as increase in power in a given
direction compared to isotropic antenna.
P ( )
G ( ) 
P0 / 4
• P() is variation of power with angle.
• G() is gain at the direction .
• P0 is total power transmitted.
• sphere = 4solid radians
 EIRP - 1
 An isotropic radiator is an antenna which radiates in
all directions equally
 Antenna gain is relative to this standard
 Antennas are fundamentally passive
 No additional power is generated
 Gain is realized by focusing power
 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is the
amount of power the transmitter would have to
produce if it was radiating to all directions equally
 Note that EIRP may vary as a function of direction
because of changes in the antenna gain vs. angle
 EIRP - 2
 The output power of a transmitter HPA is:
Pout watts
 Some power is lost before the antenna:
Pt =Pout /Lt watts reaches the antenna EIRP
Pt = Power into antenna Pout Pt
Lt
 The antenna has a gain of: HPA
Gt relative to an isotropic radiator
 This gives an effective isotropic radiated power
of:
EIRP = Pt Gt watts relative to a 1 watt
isotropic radiator
 Received Power
• We can rewrite the power flux density now considering the
transmit antenna gain:
EIRP Pt Gt
F  W/m 2

4R 2
4R 2

 The power available to a receive

antenna of area Ar m2 we get:
Pt Gt Ar
Pr  F x Ar 
4R 2
 Effective Aperture
 Real antennas have effective flux collecting areas
which are LESS than the physical aperture area.

 Define Effective Aperture Area Ae:

Ae  Aphy x 
Where Aphy is actual (physical) aperture area.
 = aperture efficiency Very good: 75%
Typical: 55%

• Antennas have (maximum) gain G related to the

effective aperture area as follows:
4Ae
Gain  2

 Back to Received Power…
 The power available to a receive antenna of effective area
Ar = Ae m2 is:

Pt Gt Ae
Pr  F x Ar 
4R 2
Where Ar = receive antenna effective aperture area = A e

4Ae Inverting… Gr 2
Gr  2 Ae 
 4
 Back to Received Power…

2
   Friis Transmission Formula
Pr  Pt Gt Gr  
 4R 
• The inverse of the term at the right referred to as “Path
Loss”, also known as “Free Space Loss” (Lp):
2
 4R  Therefore… Pt Gt Gr
Lp    Pr 
   Lp
 More complete formulation
 Demonstrated formula assumes idealized case.
 Free Space Loss (Lp) represents spherical spreading only.
 Other effects need to be accounted for in the transmission
equation:
 La = Losses due to attenuation in atmosphere
 Lta = Losses associated with transmitting antenna
 Lra = Losses associates with receiving antenna
 Lpol = Losses due to polarization mismatch
 Lother = (any other known loss - as much detail as available)
 Lr = additional Losses at receiver (after receiving antenna)

Pt Gt Gr
Pr 
L p La Lta Lra L pol Lother Lr
Signal Transmission
Link-Power Budget Formula Variables

 Link-Power Budget Formula for the received power [PR]:

 [PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] - [LOSSES]
 The equivalent isotropic radiated power [EIRP] is:
 [EIRP] = [PS] + [G] dBW, where:
 [PS] is the transmit power in dBW and [G] is the transmitting
antenna gain in dB.
 [GR] is the receiver antenna gain in dB.
 [LOSSES] = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] + [AA] + [PL], where:
 [FSL] = free-space spreading loss in dB = PT/PR (in watts)
 [RFL] = receiver feeder loss in dB
 [AML] = antenna misalignment loss in dB
 [AA] = atmospheric absorption loss in dB
 [PL] = polarisation mismatch loss in dB
 The major source of loss in any ground-satellite link is the
free-space spreading loss.
Link Power Budget

EIRP
Tx
Transmission:
HPA Power
Transmission Losses
(cables & connectors) Antenna Pointing Loss
Reception:
Antenna Gain Free Space Loss
Antenna gain
Atmospheric Loss
Reception Losses
(gaseous, clouds, rain)
(cables & connectors)
Rx Antenna Pointing Loss
Noise Temperature
Contribution

Rx Pr
 Translating to dBs
 The transmission formula can be written in dB as:
Pr  EIRP  Lta  L p  La  L pol  Lra  Lother  Gr  Lr
 This form of the equation is easily handled as a
spreadsheet (additions and subtractions!!)
 The calculation of received signal based on transmitted
power and all losses and gains involved until the receiver is
called “Link Power Budget”, or “Link Budget”.
 The received power Pr is commonly referred to as “Carrier
Power”, C.
 Link Power Budget

EIRP Now all factors are accounted for

Tx
as additions and subtractions
Transmission:
+ HPA Power
- Transmission Losses
(cables & connectors) - Antenna Pointing Loss
- Free Space Loss Reception:
+ Antenna Gain + Antenna gain
- Atmospheric Loss
- Reception Losses
(gaseous, clouds, rain)
(cables & connectors)
- Rx Antenna Pointing Loss
+ Noise Temperature
Contribution

Rx Pr
 Easy Steps to a Good Link Power Budget
 First, draw a sketch of the link path
 Doesn’t have to be artistic quality
 Helps you find the stuff you might forget
 Next, think carefully about the system of interest
 Include all significant effects in the link power budget
 Note and justify which common effects are insignificant here
 Roll-up large sections of the link power budget
 Ie.: TXd power, TX ant. gain, Path loss, RX ant. gain, RX losses
 Show all components for these calculations in the detailed budget
 Use the rolled-up results in build a link overview
 Comment the link budget
 Always, always, always use units on parameters (dBi, W, Hz ...)
 Describe any unusual elements (eg. loss caused by H20 on radome)
Simple Link Power Budget
 Why calculate Link Budgets?
 System performance tied to operation thresholds.
 Operation thresholds Cmin tell the minimum power
that should be received at the demodulator in
order for communications to work properly.
 Operation thresholds depend on:
 Modulation scheme being used.
 Desired communication quality.
 Coding gain.
 Additional overheads.
 Channel Bandwidth. We will see more on
these items in the
 Thermal Noise power. next classes.
 Closing the Link
 We need to calculate the Link Budget in order to
verify if we are “closing the link”.
Pr >= Cmin  Link Closed
Pr < Cmin  Link not closed

 Usually, we obtain the “Link Margin”, which tells how

tight we are in closing the link:
Margin = Pr – Cmin

 Equivalently:
Margin > 0  Link Closed
Margin < 0  Link not closed
 Carrier to Noise Ratios

 C/N: carrier/noise power in RX BW (dB)

 Allows simple calculation of margin if:
 Receiver bandwidth is known
 Required C/N is known for desired signal type
 C/No: carrier/noise p.s.d. (dbHz)
 Allows simple calculation of allowable RX bandwidth if
required C/N is known for desired signal type
 Critical for calculations involving carrier recovery loop
performance calculations
 System Figure of Merit

 G/Ts: RX antenna gain/system temperature

 Also called the System Figure of Merit, G/Ts
 Easily describes the sensitivity of a receive system
 Must be used with caution:
 Some (most) vendors measure G/Ts under ideal conditions only
 G/Ts degrades for most systems when rain loss increases
 This is caused by the increase in the sky noise component
 This is in addition to the loss of received power flux density
 System Noise Power - 1
 Performance of system is determined by C/N ratio.
 Most systems require C/N > 10 dB.
(Remember, in dBs: C - N > 10 dB)
 Hence usually: C > N + 10 dB
 We need to know the noise temperature of our
receiver so that we can calculate N, the noise
power (N = Pn).
 Tn (noise temperature) is in Kelvins (symbol K):

 
T  K   T C  273
0
 
T  K   T 0 F  32  273
5
9
System Noise Power - 2
 System noise is caused by thermal noise sources
 External to RX system
 Transmitted noise on link
 Scene noise observed by antenna
 Internal to RX system
 The power available from thermal noise is:

where k
N  kTs B (dBW)
= Boltzmann’s constant
= 1.38x10-23 J/K(-228.6 dBW/HzK),
Ts is the effective system noise temperature, and
B is the effective system bandwidth
Noise Spectral Density
 N = K.T.B  N/B = N0 is the noise
spectral density (density of noise power
per hertz):
N kTs B
N0    kTs (dBW/Hz)
B B
 N0 = noise spectral density is constant
up to 300GHz.
 All bodies with Tp >0K radiate
microwave energy.
 System Noise Temperature
1) System noise power is proportional to
system noise temperature
2) Noise from different sources is
uncorrelated (AWGN) Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
 Therefore, we can
 Add up noise powers from different contributions
 Work with noise temperature directly
 So:
Ts  Ttransmitted  Tantenna  TLNA  Tlineloss  TRX
 But, we must:
 Calculate the effective noise temperature of each
contribution
 Reference these noise temperatures to the same location
Typical Receiver

(Source: Pratt & Bostian Chapter 4, p115)

 Noise Model

(Source: Pratt & Bostian Chapter 4, p115)

Noise is added and then multiplied by the gain of the device

(which is now assumed to be noiseless since the noise was
already added prior to the device)
 Equivalent Noise Model of Receiver

(Source: Pratt & Bostian Chapter 4, p115)

Equivalent model: Equivalent noise Ts is added and then

multiplied by the equivalent gain of the device, GRFGmGIF
(noiseless).
 Calculating System Noise
Temperature - 1
 Receiver noise comes from several sources.
 We need a method which reduces several
sources to a single equivalent noise source at
the receiver input.
 Using model in Fig. 4.5.a gives:
Pn  GIF kTIF B (IF)
 GIF Gm kTm B (Mixer)
 GIF GmGRF kB  TRF  Tin  (Front - End)
 Calculating System Noise
Temperature - 2

 Divide by GIFGmGRFkB:

 Tm TIF 
Pn  GIF GmGRF kB TRF  Tin   
 GRF GmGRF 

 If we replace the model in Fig. 4.5.a by that in

Fig. 4.5b
Pn  GIF GmGRF kTs B
 Calculating System Noise
Temperature - 3

 Equate Eqns :

 Tm TIF 
TS  TRF  Tin   
 GRF GmGRF 

 Since C is invariably small, N must be

minimized.
 How can we make N as small as possible?
 Reducing Noise Power

 Make B as small as possible – just enough bandwidth to

accept all of the signal power (C ).
 Make TS as small as possible
 Lowest T
RF
 Lowest T (How?)
in
 High G
RF
 If we have a good low noise amplifier (LNA), i.e., low TRF,
high GRF, then rest of receiver does not matter that much.

 Tm TIF 
TS  TRF  Tin     TRF  Tin
 GRF GmGRF 
 Reducing Noise Power
Discussion on Tin

 Earth Stations: Antennas looking at space which

appears cold and produces little thermal noise
power (about 50K).
 Satellites: antennas beaming towards earth
(about 300 K):
 Making the LNA noise temperature much less gives
diminishing returns.
 Improvements aim reduction of size and weight.
 Antenna Noise Temperature

 Contributes for Tin

 Natural Sources (sky noise):
 Cosmic noise (star and inter-stellar matter), decreases with
frequency, (negligible above 1GHz). Certain parts of the sky have
punctual “hot sources” (hot sky).
 Sun (T  12000 f-0.75 K): point earth-station antennas away from
it.
 Moon (black body radiator): 200 to 300K if pointed directly to it.
 Earth (satellite)
 Propagation medium (e.g. rain, oxygen, water vapor): noise
reduced as elevation angle increases.
 Man-made sources:
 Vehicles, industrial machinery
 Other terrestrial and satellite systems operating at the
same frequency of interest.
 Antenna Noise Temperature
 Useful approximation for Earth Station
antenna temperature on clear sky (no
rain): Earth Station Antenna - Noise Temperature

50

45

40

35
Ta (K)

30

25

20

15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Elevation Angle (degrees)
So many trade-offs !!!
2
 D 
G   
  

Pt Gt Gr
Pr 
C Pr L p La Lta Lra L pol Lother Lr

N KTs B  4R 
2

Lp    La  F
  

 Tm TIF 
TS  TRF  Tin   
 GRF GmGRF 
Power Budget Example - 1
4.1.1 Satellite at 40,000 km (range)
Transmits 2W
Antenna gain Gt = 17 dB (global beam)
Calculate: a. Flux density on earth’s surface
b. Power received by antenna with effective aperture of 10m 2
c. Gain of receiving antenna.
d. Received C/N assuming Ts =152 K, and Bw =500 MHz

a. Using Eqn. 4.3: (Gt = 17 dB = 50)

EIRP Pt Gt 2 x 50
F  
4R 2
4R 2
4 x(4x107 ) 2
 4.97 x 10-15 W/m 2  143 dBW/m 2
(Solving in dB…) EIRP  ( Pt  Gt )  3  17  20 dBW
R2  2 x log10 (4 x107 ) dB[meter]2
4  11dB
F  20  11  152  143 dBW/m2
Power Budget Example - 1
b. Received Power

Pr  F x A  (4.97x10-15 ) x 10
Pr  4.97 x 10-14 W  133dBW
(Solving in dB…)
Pr  F  A  (143)  10
Pr  133 dBW

c. Gain given Ae = 10 m2 and Frequency = 11GHz ( eqn. 4.7)

4Ae 4π x 10
Gr    52.3dB
2
0. 0273
Power Budget Example - 1
b. System Noise Temperature
N  Pn  KTB  1.38 x 10 23 x 152 x 500 x 10 6
or  K dB  TdB  BdB  228.6  21.82  86.99
 119 .79 dBW
C  Pr  4.97 x 10 -14W  133dBW
C / N  C  N  133  (119 .79)
C / N  13.2dB
Power Budget Example - 2
Generic DBS-TV:

Received Power
Transponder output power , 160 W 22.0 dBW
Antenna beam on-axis gain 34.3 dB
Path loss at 12 GHz, 38,500 km path -205.7 dB
Receiving antenna gain, on axis 33.5 dB
Edge of beam -3.0 dB
Miscellaneous losses -0.8 dB
Received power, C -119.7 dBW
Power Budget Example - 2
Noise power
Boltzmann’s constant, k -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
System noise temperature, clear air, 143 K 21.6 dBK
Receiver noise bandwidth, 20MHz 73.0
dBHz
Noise power, N -134.0 dBW
 
C/N in clear air 14.3 dB
Link margin over 8.6 dB threshold 5.7 dB
Link availability throughout US Better than 99.7 %
Thank you