Effective Stress

• Assume that a stress is applied to a unit mass of saturated

sand. There are three mechanisms by which a reduction in
volume can be achieved.
1. By compression of the water in the pores.
It is controlled by the fluid compressibility β.
2. By compression of the individual sand grains.
As individual soil grains are incompressible, so it is
negligible.
3. By a rearrangement of the sand grains into a more closely
packed configuration.
Our task is to define a compressibility term that will reflect
the third mechanism. This will be done by the principle of
effective or intergranular stress, which was first proposed by
Terzaghi (1925). 1
 Effective Stress
Consider the stress equilibrium on an arbitrary plane through a saturated geological
formation at depth. Total stress due to weight of rock and water acting downward
on a plane. Some of the stress is borne by rock skeleton and some by water.

σT = σe + P

σT = Total stress
P = fluid pressure
σe = σz = effective stress
When pumping an aquifer the change in stress is:
dσT = dσe + dP
But the weight of overlying water and rock is essentially constant over time. So the
change in total stress dσT is zero . Therefore,
dσe = -dP
Fluid pressure decreases, the stress on the grains becomes greater
(imagine we took away the fluid).
2
 Specific Storage
When water is released from a confined aquifer, both aquifer
compaction and decreased water density contribute to the
volume released. Therefore, the approach is one of Mass
Balance rather than Volume Balance.
Volume balance is permissible only when the water can be
considered incompressible as in the case of unconfined aquifers.
φ = Sy + Sr

3
Mass Balance in Confined Aquifer z

Consider the flow through a saturated Δx

Δy
control volume Δx, Δy, Δz and porosity φ
Δz
The mass of water is x
M = density x Volume = ρ φ Δx Δy Δz y
The aquifer deforms only in the vertical direction, lateral
deformation (Δx, Δy) are negligible. Therefore
M = [(ρ) (φ Δz) ] Δx Δy
The change of mass
dM = [ρ d(φ Δz) + φ Δz dρ] Δx Δy
dM = [dM1 + dM2] Δx Δy
dM1 = is the contribution per unit area (Δx Δy) due to a change in
pore volume at constant density.
dM2 = is the contribution due to a change in water density at
constant pore volume. 4
Aquifer Compressibility Contd

Pore volume compressibility = change in pore volume per unit pore volume per
unit change in effective stress

d ( z )

 z 1 d ( z )
p  
d z  z dP

dM1   d ( z )    p  z dP
Bulk volume (vertical) compressibility = change in pore volume per unit bulk
volume per unit of change in effective stress

d ( z )

z 1 d ( z )
b    p
d z z dP
b    p 5
Water Compressibility Contd

Compressibility of water is given by

1 dVw
  
Vw dP
Expresses the relationship between a change of volume and a
change or pressure on a constant mass of water. Since, the mass is
constant, the definition of density yields,
M
   M Vw1
Vw
M dVw
d  MV w
2
dVw      dP
Vw Vw

dM 2   z d   z   dP 6
Total Water Volume Changes Contd

The total change in mass per unit volume of aquifer is

dM dM [dM 1  dM 2 ] x y
 
dV x y z x y z
 [   p  z dP   z   dP] / z
   ( p   ) dP
In hydrology, changes in groundwater storage are observed in units of
volume rather than mass. Dividing both sides by density ρ =dM/dVw
dVw Ground water pressure is
  ( p   ) dP
x y z P
h  z
g
dVw
  ( p   )  g dh dP
x y z dh 
g
7
dP   g dh
Specific Storage
The specific storage SS of a confined aquifer is defined as the volume of water that a
unit volume of aquifer releases from storage under a unit decline in hydraulic head.
dVW
SS  SS   g  ( p   )
(x y z ) dh
The specific storage is regarded as a constant; a property of the aquifer material,
its contained water and the overburden pressure. It has the dimension of 1/L.

Storage Coefficient

The storage coefficient (storativity) S is defined as

S = SS b = ρ g φ b (αP + β)

The storage coefficient is a dimensionless parameter that can be

interpreted as the volume of water released from a column of unit area
and height b per unit decline of pressure head. 8
 Storage Mechanisms – Confined Aquifer

Water is released from storage during a decrease in h by two

mechanisms:

1 Compaction of aquifer caused by increasing effective stress

and rearrangement of grains.
2 Expansion of water caused by decreasing fluid pressure.

This gives rise to a specific storage coefficient with two terms

and a function of α and β.
Material Compressibility (m2/N)
Clay 10-6 - 10-8
Values of Compressibility Sand 10-7 - 10-9
Gravel 10-8 - 10-10
Sound Rock 10-9 - 10-11
Water 4.4 x10-10 9
Example #1
For the given data compute the change in ground water storage from an
area of 1 sq. km, Δh = 100 m, φ = 0.30, b = 50 m, αb = 2 x 10-9 m2/N, β
= 4.4 x 10-10 m2/N.
Solution
The specific storage is
Ss = ρ g φ (αP + β) = ρ g (αb + φ β)
= 1000 * 9.81 * ( 2 x10-9 + 0.3 * 4.4 x 10-10)
= 2 x 10-5 per meter

Change in water storage = Ss * b * Δh * Area

= 2 x 10-5 * 50 * 100 * 106 = 105 m3

Total volume of water in storage = b * Area * φ

= 50 * 1 * 106 * 0.3 = 1.5 x 107 m3 10
Example #2
In a water table aquifer extending over 1 km2 the water table was initially at 25 m
below ground level. Sometimes after irrigation with a depth of 20 cm of water,
the water table rose to a depth of 24 m below ground level. Later 3 x 10 5 m3 of
water was pumped out and the water table dropped to 26.2 m below ground level.
Determine (1) specific yield of the aquifer (2) deficit in soil moisture below field
capacity before irrigation.

Solution Area of aquifer = 1 km = 10 m

2 6 2

Water table depth initially = 25 m

Depth of irrigation = 20 cm of water
Water table depth after irrigation = 24 m
Volume of water pumped out = 3 x 105 m3
Water table depth after pumping = 26.2 m

Volume of water pumped out from the aquifer

Sy 
Area of aquifer x decline in g/w table
Sy = (3 x 105) / (106 x (26.2 – 24)) = 0.136 = 13.6 % 11
 Problem #2

Volume of irrigation water recharging the aquifer

Sy 
Area of aquifer x rise in g/w table

0.136 = (A * y) / (A * (25-24))
y = 0.136 m = 136 mm
Recharge depth = y = 136 mm

Soil moisture deficit

before field capacity before irrigation = 200 – 136 = 64 mm

12
Solution Problem #1 An artesian aquifer 20 m thick has a porosity of 20 % and bulk modulus of
compression 108 N/m2. Estimate the storage coefficient of the aquifer. What
fraction of this is attributable to the expansibility of water?

Thickness = b = 20 m Porosity = φ = 20%

Bulk Modulus of compression = Eb = 108 N/m2
Bulk Modulus = αb = 1/E = 10-8 m2/N
Water compressibility = β = 4.4 x 10-10 m2/N
The storage coefficient is
S = ρ g b (αb + φ β)
= 1000 * 9.81 * 20 * ( 10-8 + 0.2 * 4.4 x 10-10) = 0.00197
The fraction of storage attributable to the expansibility of water is
Sw = ρ g b (φ β)
= 1000 * 9.81 * 20 * (0.2 * 4.4 x 10-10) = 0.0000173
Sw = 0.0000173/0.00197 = 1 % of S 13
Problem #2
A confined aquifer has a specific storage of 1.022 x 10–6 ft–1
and a thickness of 23 ft. How much water would it yield if
the water declined an average of 1.75 ft over a circular area
with a radius of 418 ft?
Solution
Yield of water from confined aquifer
VW = S A Δh
S = SS b = 2.35 x 10-5
A = π r2 = 5.489 x 105 ft3
Δh = 1.75 ft

VW = 23 ft3
14
 An aquifer averages 50 m in thickness and is 100 ha in area. Determine the
Problem #3
volume in ha-m of water available if
1. the aquifer is unconfined and is completely drained
2. the aquifer is confined and the piezometric head is lowered from 30
m to 10 m above the aquifer.
3. the aquifer is confined and the piezometric head is lowered 55 m
which brings the water table 25 m below the confining layer.
(Hint: Assume values of Sy and S.)
Solution
G/S
Thickness = b = 50 m
Area of aquifer = A = 100 ha V

Assume: 50 m

Specific yield = Sy = 15 % Unconfined Aquifer

Storage coefficient = S = 2 x 10-4

Case #1. Unconfined Aquifer

Volume of water available:
ΔGWS = A x ΔGWT x Sy = 100 * (50-0) * 0.15 = 750 ha-m 15
 Problem #3
Case #2 Confined Aquifer
ΔGWS = A x [Δ Piezometric head x S]
30 m
= 100 * [(30-10) * 2x10-4 10 m
= 0.4 ha-m
50 m
Confined Aquifer

Case #3 Confined + Unconfined

This part consists of two aquifers.
55 m
ΔGWS = A x Δ Piezometric head x S
+ A x ΔGWT x Sy
50 m
= 100 * [(55-25) * 2x10 -4 V
25 m Confined Aquifer
+ 100 * (25-0) * 0.15]
= 0.6 + 375 = 375.6 ha-m
16