Electrical Engineering Department

LECTURE 2
Electrical Engineering Department

Previous Lecture
• Information Technology
- it is a combination of computer technology
and communication technology
• IT Terms
- cyberspace
- internetwork
-multimedia
-world wide web
Electrical Engineering Department EC121 2

Categories of Computers
For individuals For organizations

• Desktop • Mainframe
• Workstation • Minicomputers
• Tablet computers • Network servers
• Notebook • Super computers
• Handheld
http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/zos/basics/index.jsp?to
pic=/com.ibm.zos.zmainframe/zconc_whatismainframe.htm

Where Is Information Technology Headed?
Three Directions of Computer Development
•Miniaturization
•Speed
•Affordability
Then (1946ENIAC)
Now
Electrical Engineering Department EC121 1A-4

Where Is Information Technology Headed?
Three Directions of Communication Development
•Connectivity
•Interactivity
Auto PC
•Multimedia
Image Courtesy:
http://blog.wired.com/cars/images/2007/05/31/t
elematics.jpg

When Computers & Communications Combine:
Convergence, Portability, & Personalization
•Convergence
•Portability
•Personalization
Image courtesy:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearable_comp
uter

Moving on to Computer…

What is a computer?
a device that computes

Essential Computer Hardware
• Input and output devices
– Allows the user to interact
– Input devices accept data
• Keyboard, mouse
– Output devices deliver data
• Monitor, printer, speaker
– Some devices are input and output
• Touch screens
Electrical Engineering Department EC121

1B-9
What is Processing?
• Conversion of Data into Information
• Data
– The raw facts and figures that are processed into
information
• Information
– Data that has been summarized or otherwise
manipulated for use in decision making

Types of Data
• Numeric
– Record Daily Milk Expenses
• Sun 20 Rs
• Mon 30 Rs
• Tues 35 Rs
• Wed 23 Rs
• Thurs 34 Rs
• Fri 50 Rs
• Sat 30 Rs

Types of Data
• Numeric
– Processing Data
• Finding Weekly expenditure on Milk
• Finding a Daily Average of milk expenditure
20,30,35,23,
Find Total/Average 222/31.7
34,50,30

Types of Data
• Text
– Raw:
one of the most important concepts students must understand is

the fundamental difference between data and information
– Processed (1): Formatted
“One of the most important concepts students must understand

is the fundamental difference between data and information.”
– Processed (2): Words arranged alphabetically
and between concepts data difference fundamental important

information is most must of one students the the understand

Types of Data
• Image
– Raw
– Processed

Types of Data
• Audio
– Raw: Conversation between people in cockpit of
aircraft and Flight Controller recorded in Black
box
– Processed: In case of air crash, the recorded
audio will be converted to digital form, background
noise will be removed, and the clarity of speech
will be improved to assist investigators

Types of Data
• Video
– Raw: Old Black and White movies
– Processed: Black and white movie made colored
– Raw: Any Video in foreign language

– Processed: Dub it in Urdu

Data representation
How computers represent data?

Data Types
• Numbers
• Text
• Graphics
• Sound

How Computers Represent Data

• Number systems
– A manner of counting
– Several different number systems exist
• Decimal number system
– Used by humans to count
– Contains ten distinct digits
• Origin: Probably because human beings normally
have 10 fingers
– Digits combine to make larger numbers

• Computers use electronic switches called
transistors
• A switch can either be ON or OFF
=1 =0
• Only two numeric values can be represented

by one switch, 0 and 1

• Binary number system
– Used by computers to count
– Two distinct digits, 0 and 1
– 0 and 1 combine to make numbers

• Bits and bytes
– Binary numbers are made of bits
– Bit (Binary Digit) represents a switch
– A byte is 8 bits
– Byte represents one character

– Any number from the decimal number system can
also be written using binary number system
– Decimal to Binary conversion is required
– Each digit in the decimal number system has a
place value
• Ones (100), Tens(101), Hundreds(102),
Thousands(103)

Decimal Number System
– The place value is expressed in powers of 10
• 10 to the power of digit position
• 10 is called the base of the Decimal number
system
Image Courtesy: www.emu8086.com

• Binary Number System
– In binary number system the base is 2
– Place value is 2 to the power of digit position
• Quadword - 64 bits

Conversion from Binary to Decimal
• Binary number system has a base ‘2’
• For conversion calculate place value of each digit
position and multiply by the corresponding digit value
(0 or 1)
(1 1 0 0 1)2
24 23 22 21 20
=1x 24 + 1x 23 + 0x 22 + 0x 21 + 1x 20
= 1x16 + 1x8+ 0x4+ 0x2 + 1x1
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 2510

Conversion from Binary to Decimal
• What is the decimal equivalent of (10100101)2?

Other number systems
• Hexa-Decimal Number System
– 16 possible values
– 0,1,2,…9,A,B,..F
– Base 16
• Octal Number System

– 8 possible values
– 0,1,2,..7
– Base 8

Conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal
Decimal Binary Hexadecimal
• Every nibble (4 (base 10) (base 2) (base 16)
bits) can be 0 0000 0
converted to a 1 0001 1
hexadecimal digit 2 0010 2
using this table 3 0011 3

4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
Conversion from Hexadecimal to Decimal
• Same as with binary to decimal conversion, only the
base is now 16, instead of 2

Conversion from Decimal to other
number systems
• Divide the decimal value by the base of the desired
system
• Each time, remember the result and keep the
remainder
• Continue the division process until the result is zero
• The remainders are then used to represent a value in
that system

Binary Coded Decimal
• Each decimal digit is represented by its own
binary sequence
• Allows easy conversion to decimal digits for
printing or display
– Map digits 0-9 to some binary values
– 0-9 are 10 digits
– 3 bits can have 8 combinations
– 4 bits can have 16 combination
– We would have to use 4 bits since 10 > 8
– So each decimal digit is converted to its 4-bit
binary representation

Binary Coded Decimal
• 010  00002 , 110  00012 ,…, 910  10012
– So 910  0910  0000 10012
– 1010  0001 00002

Text Codes
• Text codes
– Converts letters into binary
– Standard codes necessary for data transfer
– ASCII

Graphic Codes
– Extended ASCII – 8 bits
• Graphics and other symbols

Unicode
– UTF 8
– UTF 16
– UTF 32
• All languages on the planet

Data Representation
How is a character sent from the keyboard to the computer?
Step 1 :
The user presses the letter T key on
the keyboard
Step 2:
An electronic signal for the letter T
is sent to the system unit
Step 3:
The signal for the letter T is
converted to its ASCII binary code
(01010100) or Unicode U+0054
and is stored in memory for
processing
Step 4:
After processing, the code for the
letter T is converted to an image on
the output device
How Computers Process Data?

Information Processing Cycle
Steps followed to process data
• Input
• Storage
• Processing
• Output
• Controlling
For details
http://www1.pacific.edu/comp25/reading/1-
InfoProcessingCycle.html
Electrical Engineering Department EC121
1B-42
Central Processing Unit
• An extensive set of electronic circuitry that
executes stored program instructions
• In an average microcomputer, the CPU is a
single unit called the ‘microprocessor’
• Two parts:
– Control Unit
– Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Control Unit
• Contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the
entire computer system to execute stored program
instructions
• It does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs
other parts of the system to do so
• The control unit must communicate with both the ALU and
the memory
• The instruction set lists all operations the CPU can perform
• Each instruction is expressed in microcode
• Control Unit does the following
– Move data from one place to another; from memory to
storage or to printer etc.
– Passes instructions involving arithmetic/logical operations
to the ALU

Arithmetic Logic Unit
Performs:
• Arithmetic Operations
– Addition,Subtraction,Multiplication,Division
• Logical Operations
– Comparisons
• equal to, less than, greater than, less than or
equal to, greater than or equal to, and not equal

Arithmetic Logic Unit
• Contains a group of registers
• A register is a high-speed memory location built
directly into the CPU to hold data
– e.g., the numbers that are to be added are stored
in registers and the result of the computation is
stored in another register before being sent out

Register
Register is a single storage location inside the CPU
Name of register Function

Memory Address register Holds the address of the
active memory location
Memory Buffer Register Holds the information on
its way to and from
memory
Program control Register Holds the address of the
next instruction to be
executed
Accumulator register Accumulates results and
data to be operated upon
Instruction Register Holds an instruction, while
it is being executed
Input/output Communicates with the
I/O devices
Machine Cycle
• Steps performed by CPU to process data
• Consists of
– Instruction Cycle and
– Execution Cycle

Machine Cycle
• Instruction cycle
– Fetch: Control Unit retrieves
a command/data from memory
– Decode: Control Unit breaks
down the command into
instructions that correspond
to those in CPU’s instruction
set
• Execution cycle
– CPU performs the instruction
– Stores the result in register
or memory

Steps
• Control unit takes the address of the next program
instruction to be executed from the PC and reads the
instruction from the corresponding memory address into
the IR
• The control unit then sends the operational part and the
instructional part to the decoder and the MAR respectively
• The decoder interprets the instruction, and the control unit
sends signals to the appropriate unit.
• Control unit also ensures that the data corresponding to
the address part of the instruction is loaded in the specific
register
• Each instruction is executed, the addres of the next
instruction is automatically loaded into PC

Example
Step
Step4:
Step 1:
2: The
The control
AStep 3:The
student The
enters
ALUa
control
unit decodes
results unit
of the the
math
executes
problem the into
fetches
mathproblem
math problem
the math and
the
math
memory
problem ofare
the
problem
sendsin
stored it from
to the ALU
memory
computer
memory
The result in
memory displays
on the screen of
the monitor

Memory
• Memory
– Stores open programs and data
– Small chips on the motherboard or on a small
circuit board attached to the motherboard
– More memory makes computer applications run
faster

Memory
Volatile memory
volatile Memory
Loses its contents when the
nonvolatile
Loses its contents memory
computer's power is turned off
when the computer's
power is turned off Does not lose its
contents when the
computer’s power
is turned off

The Role of Memory
• RAM stores data and program code
needed by the CPU. The contents of
RAM change rapidly and often.
• Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile

(or permanent). It holds instructions that
run the computer when the power is first
turned on.
• The CPU accesses each location in

memory by using a unique number, called
the memory address

References
• http://www.oopweb.com/Assembly/Documents
/ArtOfAssembly/Volume/Chapter_1/CH01-1.h
tml
• http://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/Unic
ode.html
• http://diveintopython3.org/strings.html

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LECTURE 2