Excess Carriers in Semiconductors

SFA

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 4.1 Optical Absorption(1)

• hv > Eg : Optical absorption  EHP The excited electron gives up energy to the
lattice by scattering events The electron recombines with a hole in the valence band.
• hv < Eg : Optical absorption  Transparent in certain wavelength ranges.
Ex) NaCl : Eg  3 eV : Allow infrared and the entire visible spectrum to be
transmitted.

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 4.1 Optical Absorption(2)

dI ( x)
  I ( x )
dx
I ( x)  I 0 e x ,  : absorption coefficient
The intensity of light transmitted through the sample thickness l
I t  I 0 e l

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4.1 Optical Absorption(3)

hc
 E = h =  1.24 / 


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 4.1 Optical Absorption(4)

• Si absorbs not only band gap light (~1um) but also shorter wavelengths,
including those in the visible part of the spectrum.

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 4.2 Luminescence

• Luminescence : Light emission (The radiation resulting from the recombination of

the excited carriers)
- Photoluminescence : If carriers are excited by photon absorption.
- Cathodoluminescence : If the excited carriers are created by high-energy electrom
bombardment of the material.
- Electroluminescence : If the excitation occurs by the introduction of current into the
sample.

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 4.2.1 Photoluminescence

• Light Absorption → EHP excitation → the recombination of EHPs

Light emission

• Direct recombination : Fast process → Fluorescence

- The mean lifetime of the EHP < 10-8s
- The emission of photons stops within approximately 10-8s after the excitation is turned
off.
• Emission continues for periods up to seconds or minutes after the excitation is removed
→ Phosphorescence

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4.2.1 Photoluminescence
(a) An incoming photon with hv1 > Eg is
absorbed, creating an EHP.
(b) The excited electron gives up energy to
the lattice by scattering until it nears the
bottom of the conduction band.
(c) The electron is trapped by the impurity
level Et
(d) and remains trapped until it can be
thermally reexcited to the conduction
band.
(e) Finally direct recombination occurs as
the electron falls to an empty state in the
valence band, giving off a photon (hv2)
of approximately the band gap energy.

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 4.2.1 Photoluminescence

Ex 4-1>
A 0.46um-thick sample of GaAs is illuminated with monochromatic light of hv=2V. The
absorption coefficient α is 5×104 cm-1. The power incident on the sample is 10mW.
(a) Find the total energy absorbed by the sample per second (J/s).
SOL>

I ( x)  I 0 e x  10 2 exp(5 10 4  0.46  10 4 )

 10  2 e  2.3  10 3W
 the absorbed power is
10  1  9mW  9 10 3 J / s

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 4.2.1Photoluminescence

(b) Find the rate of excess thermal energy given up by the electrons to the lattice before
recombination (J/s).
SOL>
The fraction of each photon energy unit which is converted to heat
2 - 1.43
 0.285
2
 the amount of energy converted to heat per second
0.285 9  10-3  2.57 103 J / s
(c) Find the number of photons per second given off from recombination events, assuming perfect
quantum efficiency.
SOL>
Assuming one emitted photon for each photon absorbed,
9  10-3 J / s
19
 2.81  1016
photons / s
1.6  10 J / eV  2eV / photon

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 4.2.2 Cathodoluminescence

CRT Cathode Ray Tube

• Emission of excited electron on cathode → Acceleration to anode →

Atom excitation in phosphor → Light emission by recombination

4.2.3 Electroluminescence
• LED
- Recombination between minority carrier and majority → Light emission

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 4.3 Carrier Lifetime and Photoconductivity
• Photoconductivity
- If the excess carriers arise from optical luminescence, the resulting increase in conductivity
is called Photoconductivity

4.3.1 Direct Recombination of Electrons and Holes (1)

• Net rate of change in the conduction band electron concentration

dn( t ) 2
  r n i   r n( t )p( t )
dt

}
}
Thermal generation Number of electrons remaining at t

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4.3.1 Direct Recombination of Electrons and Holes (2)

• Let us assume the excess electron-hole population is created at t=0 and the initial excess
electron and hole concentration Δn and Δp are equal. Then as the electrons and holes
recombine in pairs, the instantaneous concentrations of excess carriers δn(t) and δp(t) are also
equal.

dn(t)
  r n i2   r  n 0  n(t) p 0  p(t)
dt

  r (n 0  p 0 )n(t)   2 n(t) 
• If the excess carrier concentration are small, we can neglect the δn 2 term and if the material is
p-type (p0>>n0),
dn( t )
   r p 0 n ( t )
dt
n(t)  ne - r p0t  ne -t/ n t  0, n(0)  n
• Excess electrons in a p-type semiconductor recombine with a decay constant τ n=(αnp0)-1,
called the recombination lifetime.

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4.3.1 Direct Recombination of Electrons and Holes (3)
Ex 4-2> GaAs. NA = 1015 cm-3, n i = 106 cm-3, n0 = ni2/p0 = 10-3 cm-3
If 1014 EHP cm-3 are created at t=0, n = p = 10-8 s.

 p0  p (t )

General recombination life-time

1
 n
 r (n 0  p 0 )

 n0  n(t ) => Minority carrier decay

is more important

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 4.3.2 Indirect Recombination; Trapping (1)
• The vast majority of the recombination events in indirect materials occur via
recombination levels within the band gap, and the resulting energy loss by recombining
electrons is usually given up to the lattice a heat rather than by the emission of photons.

• When a carrier is trapped temporarily at a center and

then is reexcited without recombination taking place.
→ Temporary trapping.
→ Recombination delay

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4.3.2 Indirect Recombination; Trapping (2)

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4.3.2 Indirect Recombination; Trapping (3)

Photoconductivity decay Estimation of Recombintion or trapping effect

• The conductivity of the sample during the decay

(t) = q[n(t)n+p(t)p]

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4.3.3 Steady State Carrier Generation; Quasi-Fermi Levels (1)
• Thermal equilibrium
- Thermal generation of EHPs at a rate g(T)=gi
g( T )   r n i   r n 0 p 0
2

• If a steady light is shone on the sample,

g(T)  g op   r np   r (n 0  n)(p 0  p)

}
 New steady state value

For steady state recombination and no trapping, n=p.


g(T)  g op   r n 0 p 0   r (n 0  p 0 )n  n 2 
Neglecting the n2 term for low-level excitation,
n
g op   r (n 0  p 0 )n 
n
 n = p = g op  n

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4.3.3 Steady State Carrier Generation; Quasi-Fermi Levels (2)
ex) g op  10 13 EHP / cm 3   sec
n 0  1014 cm -3 ,  n   p  2s in Si

Steady state excess carrier concentration

n  g op  n  2  1013 / cm 3

Minority carrier concentration

p 0  n i2 / n 0  (2.25  10 20 ) / 1014
 2.25 10 6 cm 3 (equilibrium)
Steady state p  p 0  p  2  1013 cm -3 (steady state)

2
* Equilibrium : n 0p 0  n i
2
When excess carriers are present : np  n i

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4.3.3 Steady State Carrier Generation; Quasi-Fermi Levels (3)
• Equilibrium : n 0  n i e ( E F  E i ) / kT p 0  n i e ( E i  E F ) / kT
When excess carriers are present :

n 0  n i e ( Fn E i ) / kT
( E i  Fp ) / kT
Fn & Fp : Quasi-Fermi Level
p0  n ie

Ex 4-4> steady state, n  n 0  n  1.2 1014  (1.5 1010 )e ( Fn  E i ) / 0.0259

 Fn  E i  0.0259 ln(8 103 )  0.233 eV
 E i  Fp  0.186 eV

* The excitation cause a large percentage change

in minority carrier hole concentration and a
relatively small change in the electron
concentration

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 4.4 Diffusion of Carriers
4.4.1 Diffusion Processes (1)

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 4.4.1 Diffusion Processes (2)

• Carriers in a semiconductor diffuse in a carrier gradient by random thermal

motion and scattering from the lattice and impurities

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 4.4.1 Diffusion Processes (3)
• A rate of electron flow in the +x-direction per unit area

n ( x 0 ) 

(n1  n 2 ),  : mean free path
2t
t : mean free time
n ( x )  n( x  x )
• Difference in electron concentration n1  n 2  
x
2 2
 n( x )  n( x  x )  dn( x )
 n ( x )  lim 
2t x 2t dx
The net motion of electrons due to diffusion is in the direction of
decreasing electron concentration
dn( x ) dp( x )
 n ( x)   Dn ,  p ( x )   Dp
dx dx
dn( x ) dn( x )
J n ,diff   (  q)D n   qD n
dx dx
dp( x ) dp( x )
J p ,diff   (  q)Dp   qDp
dx dx

 The resulting currents are in opposite directions

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4.4.2 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers; Built-in Fields (1)
dn( x )
J n ( x )  q n n( x )  ( x )  qD n
dx

dp( x )
J p ( x )  q pp( x )  ( x )  qDp
dx

 J( x)  J n (x)  J p ( x)

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4.4.2 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers; Built-in Fields (2)

E( x )
• Electron Potential  V ( x ) 
(  q)

 
 (x)  - dV(x)  - d  Ei   1 dEi
dx dx  (-q) q dx

Electrons drift “downhill” in the field

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4.4.2 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers; Built-in Fields (3)
• At equilibrium : no net current

 (x)  D p 1 dp( x )
p( x ) dx
p(x)  p i e ( E i  E F ) / kT
p

D p 1  dE i dE F 
 ( x)    
 p kT  dx dx 

• The equilibrium Fermi level does not vary with x.

D kT
   Einstein relation
 q

Table 4-1 Diffusion Dn Dp n p

coefficient and mobility (cm2/s) (cm2/s) (cm2/V-s) (cm2/V-s)
of electrons and holes for
Ge 100 50 3900 1900
intrinsic semiconductors
at 300K Si 35 12.5 1350 480
GaAs 220 10 8500 400

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4.4.3 Diffusion and Recombination; The Continuity Equation(1)

p 1 J p ( x )  J p ( x   x ) p
x  x  x  
t q x p
Rate of hole Increase of hole concentration - Recombination rate
buildup = in δxA per unit time

p( x, t )  p 0  p p 1  J p p
x  0 ;     : Continuity equation for holes
t t t q x  p

n 1 J n n
 Continuity equation for electrons  
t q x  n

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4.4.3 Diffusion and Recombination; The Continuity Equation(2)

• When the current is carried strictly by diffusion (negligible drift),

n
J n ,diff  qD n
x

n  2  n n
Diffusion eq. for electrons  Dn 
t x 2
n

p  2  p p
Diffusion eq. for holes  Dp 
t x 2 p

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4.4.4 Steady State Carrier Injection; Diffusion Length(1)
f
• Steady state 0
t
• Diffusion equation in the steady state
 2n n n
  L n  D n  n : electron diffusion length
x 2 D n n Ln
2

 2p p p
  L p  Dp  p : hole diffusion length
x 2
D p p Lp
2

• x=0 , steady state hole injection (p)  p(x=0) = p

d 2p p
2
 2
dx Lp
x /Lp  x/ Lp
p( x )  C1e  C 2e
B . C p(x =  ) = 0 I.C p(x = 0) = p
-x/L p
 p(x) = pe

LP : Distance at which the excess hole distribution is

reduced to 1/e of its value at the point of injection

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4.4.4 Steady State Carrier Injection; Diffusion Length(2)
• Lp : Average distance a hole diffuses before recombining.
Find Lp!
p(x)
• Probability that a hole injected at x=0 survives to x without recombination  exp( x/L p )
p

• Probability that hole at x will recombine in the subsequent interval dx

 dp(x) 
 p ( x )  p ( x   x )  dx  dx 1
   dx
p ( x ) p(x) Lp

• Total probability that a hole injected at x=0 will recombine in a given dx is the product of the two
probabilities
1
exp(-x/L p )  dx
Lp
 1
• Average distance a hole diffuses  x  0 x  exp(-x/Lp )  dx  L p
Lp
dp d p Dp Dp
J p ( x )   qDp   qDp q pe  x / L P  q p ( x )
dx dx Lp Lp

 The diffusion current at any x is just proportional to the excess concentration δp at that position

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4.4.5 The Haynes-Shockley Experiment (1)

• n-type : n0 >> p0 n : negligible

p : significant
L vd
vd  p 
td 
Drift velocity Mobility

• As the pulse drifts in the E-field it also

spreads out by diffusion. By measuring the
spread in the pulse, we can calculate Dp.
p(x, t)  2p(x, t)
 Dp
t  x2
 p  -x 2 / 4D t
p(x, t)   e p

 2 D p t 

→ Gaussian Distribution

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4.4.5 The Haynes-Shockley Experiment (2)

 p
• Peak value of the pulse at any time (at x=0) p 
( peak ) 2 Dp t d

• Choosing the point Δx/2, at which  p( x )is down by 1 / eˆp (x  0)
2
e ˆp  ˆpe
1  ( x/2) / 4D p t d

(x) 2
Dp 
16t d
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4.4.5 The Haynes-Shockley Experiment (3)

• Since x cannot be measured directly, we measure t.

L
x  t  v d  t
td

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4.4.5 The Haynes-Shockley Experiment (4)

Ex 4-6> Haynes-Shockley Experiment

n-type Ge, length of the sample : 0.95cm, E0=2V
A pulse arrives at point (2) 0.25ms after injection at (1)
The width of the pulse t = 117 s
p, Dp?

Vd 0.95 / ( 0.25  10 3 )
p    1900 cm 2 / V  s
d 2

(x) 2 (tL) 2
Dp   3
 49.4 cm 2 / s
16t d 16t d
Dp kT
 0.026 
p q

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4.4.6 Gradients in the Quasi-Fermi Levels (1)
dEF
• Equilibrium 0
dx
• Nonequilibrium  excess carrier  EF  Fp or Fn
dE Fn
0 why?
dx
• If we take the general case of nonequilibrium electron concentration
with drift and diffusion.
dn(x)
J n ( x)  q n n(x) (x)  qD n
dx
dn(x) d
dx

dx
 
n i e ( Fn  E i ) / kT 
n(x)  dFn dE i 
 
kT  dx dx 


 dF dE 
J n ( x)  q n n(x) (x)   n n(x)  n  i 
 dx dx 
dE
 (x)   i
dx
dF
J n ( x)   n n(x) n
dx
Thus, the processes of the electron drift and diffusion are summed up
by the spatial variation of the quasi-Fermi level.
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4.4.6 Gradients in the Quasi-Fermi Levels (2)
• In the form of a modified Ohm’s law,
d( Fn / q) d( Fn / q)
J n ( x )  q n n ( x )   n (x)
dx dx
d( Fp / q) d( Fp / q)
J p ( x )  q p p ( x )   p ( x)
dx dx

Therefore, any drift, diffusion, or combination of the two in semiconductor

results in currents proportional to the gradients of the two quasi-Fermi levels.

* Equilibrium  n0p0 = ni2

Steady-state  np = ?

n  n i e ( E F  E i ) / kT p  n i e ( E i  E F ) / kT
( Fn  E i  E i  Fp ) / kT ( Fn  Fp ) / kT
n  p  n i2 e  n i2 e  n i2

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