CELL & NUCLEAR

DIVISION
BY ATHIRAH HANIM
 INTRODUCTION

Cells reproduce by The conspicuous structure

All living organisms dividing and passing on in eukaryotic cells is the
grow and reproduce their genes to daughter nucleus. The nucleus
cells controls cell’s activities.

Nuclear division combined

with cell division allows
Nucleus always divides
cell, and therefore whole
before a cell divides organism to reproduce
themselves.
 NUCLEUS
Just
Just before
before eukaryotic
eukaryotic cell
cell divides,a
divides,a number
number of
of characteristic
characteristic thread
thread like
like structures
structures gradually
gradually become
become visible
visible in
in
the
the nucleus
nucleus

Coloured Chromosomes Bodies

The
The number
number of
of chromosomes
chromosomes is
is characteristics
characteristics of
of the
the species
species (ie
(ie Human:
Human: 46
46 chromosomes;
chromosomes; Fruit
Fruit fly
fly cells:
cells: 88
chromosomes)
chromosomes)
Each chromosome
Note the different size
composed of 2
of chromosomes and
chromatids held at
position of centromere
centromere

Photograph of a set of chromosomes viewed using electron microscope.

 KARYOTYPE OF A HUMAN MALE

Non sex chorosomes Sex chromosomes (X:

(autosomes) are placed in Female; Y: Male)
group A to G separately
 KARYOTYPE OF CHROMOSOMES

Accurate and precise

Matching pairs of One from nuclear division during
chromosomes mother and one growth results in all cells
(homologous pairs) from the father containing 2 sets of
chromosomes

Sex chromosomes to Y chromosome

determine the sex. XX: has a portion
Female; XY: Male missing
 HAPLOID AND DIPLOID CELLS

• DIPLOID : Cells contain 2 sets of chromosomes (2n).

• HAPLOID : Cells contain only one set of chromosomes (n).

• Where n= number of chromosomes in one set of chromosomes.

• Not all cells are diploid
• Gametes have only one set of chromosome.
HAPLOID DIPLOID
 During interphase (period between
nuclear division), each DNA
molecule in a nucleus makes an
identical copy of itself
Two identical Each copy is
structures called contained in a
chromatids chromatid

THE STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOMES

2 chromatids are DNA is molecule of
held together by inheritance and
centromere ; The gene for
made up of series of
chromosome particular
genes
characteristic is
Each chromatid always found at the
contains one DNA same position
molecule (Locus)
 NUCLEAR DIVISION
MITOSIS MEIOSIS

The gametes contain only one set

When a diploid zygote(one cell)
grows into a multicellular diploid
adult, the daughter cells must keep
the same number of chromosomes
as the parent cell  GROWTH
of chromosomes rather than two
sets. The life cycle involves sexual
reproduction, there must be a point
where the number of
chromosomes is halved 
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 MITOSIS IN AN ANIMAL CELL

• Mitosis is nuclear division that produces two genetically identical daughter nuclei.
• Each containing the same number of chromosome as parent nucleus.
• A diploid nucleus that divides by mitosis produces two diploid nucleus.
• Mitosis is a form of nuclear division and is a part of precisely controlled process called
CELL CYCLE.
* MITOTIC NUCLEAR DIVISION

n 2n
*
*
2n 2n 4n
*
4n
n
*
2n

Gametes Zygote adult Gametes Zygote Adult

 THE CELL CYCLE

• The cell cycle is the period between one cell division and the next.
• It has three phases:
1. Interphase
2. Nuclear division
3. Cell division/cytokinesis
• The length of cell cycle is variable depending on environmental condition and cell
type. (ie; root tip cells of onion: 20 hours; epithelial cells in human intestine: 10 hours)
 MITOSIS

METAPHAS
PROPHASE E
ANAPHASE TELOPHASE
 BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

1. Regeneration of multicellular organisms from unicellular organism.

2. Replacement of cells and repair of tissues.
3. Vegetative propagation in plants where bud on part of the stem simply grows a new
plant.
 Effects
Effectsof
ofuncontrolled
uncontrolledMitosis
Mitosis

When cells divide repeatedly, without control, regulation, produce

cancer cells.
Cancer –
 Disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis, due to severe disruption to
mechanism controls cell cycle.
 Divide freely, uncontrollably.
 Compete with surrounding normal cells to obtain sufficient nutrients &
energy for their own growth.
 Cancel cell that is not destroyed will divide uncontrollably to form
Tumour = abnormal mass of cells.
 Intrude & spread to other tissues, lead to malfunction of tissues,
ultimately death.
 Caused by factors:
 Damage to DNA
 Gene mutation that control cell division
 Ionising radiation Eg; X-rays, UV, Gamma ray
 Chemical compounds – Tar, tobacco smoke
 Carcinogenic compounds - formaldehyde
 Normal cells
Controlled growth
Single organized layer
Cells are differentiated, carry out
specialized functions
Nuclei & number of chromosomes
are normal
Cancer cells
Uncontrolled growth
Multi-layered & disorganized
Cells are undifferentiated, not have
specialized functions
Nuclei & number of chromosomes
are abnormal
 Application
Applicationof
ofmitosis
mitosis
Cloning – process producing clones or genetically
identical copies of a cell, tissue or an organism through
asexual reproduction not through fusion of gametes.
Produce organism with same genetic content &
chromosomal number as parent.
Animal cloning – transfer of nucleus from a somatic
cell to an ovum or embryonic cell with nucleus removed.
A sheep named Dolly, one of the successful clones in
1996.
Somatic cells (mammary Unfertilized egg Electric pulse stimulates
gland cells) are removed (ovum) cell is obtained. fusion between somatic
& grown in low culture The nucleus is cell + denucleated egg.
medium. removed, leave
cytoplasm & organelles.

Embryo is implanted
Dolly, the cloned into a surrogate Cell divides
sheep of somatic mother (same breed repeatedly forming an
cell donor is born. of sheep as the ovum embryo
donor sheep)
Dolly
first mammal to have been successfully
cloned from an adult cell.
 Advantages of Cloning
 Multiply copies of useful genes or clones.

 Shorter time in larger numbers of clones.

 Transgenic crops Eg; wheat, soya bean, cotton are resistant to herbicides, pests &
diseases are created.
 Plants produce better quality yields, Eg; resistant to larvae, gene codes a protein
synthesis that kills larvae that feed on cotton plants.
 Delayed ripening in tomatoes, appears fresh & firm, longer shelf life.

 Involve vegetative reproduction does not need pollinating agents. Propagation

takes place any time.

 Control or overcome environmental pollution, cutting down the cost & time for
cleaning. Eg; gene for lipase synthesis isolated from animals, inserted into bacterial
genome, create bacteria that can clean up oil spills in ocean, break down toxic
waste materials, help clean up toxic waste dumps. Eg; bacteria removes sulphur
from coal.
 Disadvantages of Cloning
Ethical & moral issues regarding cloning. Religious groups & organizations
questioned, strongly opposed it.
Long-term side effects of using genetically modified viruses & bacterial
clones in medicines, industries not yet known.
Long-term effects & safety aspects of releasing bacterial clones to
environment to solve problems related to environment such as pollution, not
yet known, organisms may mutate, become dangerous to environment &
organisms.
Clones do not show any genetic variations. Eg; plant clones have adapted
to current environment. If a drastic change in future, clones may be wiped out
entirely, unable to adapt anymore to the changes.
Clones have same level of resistance towards certain diseases. If new
disease or pest emerge, all clones may be eliminated, not resistant to new
ones.
New clones undergo natural mutations can endanger mankind &
environment, may disrupt natural equilibrium of ecosystem.
Contain genes resistant to herbicides. Genes may be transferred to
weeds through viruses, weeds could be resistant to herbicides too.
Cloned animals have a shorter lifespan. Research still find solution to
prolong it.
MEIOSIS
 INTRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction = The gametes from

Each parent
the offspring that are mother (n) and
produced
produced are father (n) fused
reproductive
genetically different together to form
cells 
from each other and new organism 
GAMETES (n)
from their parents (2n) ZYGOTE (2n)

MEIOSIS occurs MEIOSIS introduces

The cell division
as gametes are genetic variation into
involved known as the gemetes and
formed inside the
 MEIOSIS zygote produces
testes and ovaries
 Process of Meiosis

 Meiosis contains 2 separate nuclear divisions:

a) Meiosis I – Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I.

b) Meiosis II – Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II.

 Begins with a single diploid parent cell. Produce 4 Haploid

cells, each has different genes, different from the others, and
from the parent cell.
 Undergoes Interphase too and DNA replicates once.
 Meiosis
2 stages

Meiosis I Meiosis II
 CYTOKINESIS

CYTOKINESIS
CYTOKINESIS
2n = DIPLOID = 46 chromosomes

INTERPHASE
MEOISIS I

SAME LIKE MITOSIS MEOISIS II

n = HAPLOID = 23 chromosomes
GAMETES
MEIO
SIS I
 2n 1) PROPHASE I 2) METAPHASE I
1)  Chromosomes condense, tightly  Homologous chromosomes
coiled, shorter, thicker, visible pair align randomly at
under microscope. metaphase plate, lined up
 Homologous chromosomes side by side as tetrads.
come together form bivalents Attached to spindle fibres.
2) through process –Synapsis. One  Centromeres do not divide.
paternal, the other one, maternal.
 Bivalent consists of Tetrad 3) ANAPHASE I
consists of 2 Homologous  Spindles are shortened, pull.
chromosomes (Pair of 2 sister  Homologous chromosomes
chromatids). separate. Homologous
 Crossing over – DNA or gene chromosomes, each containing
3) exchange between Non-sister 2 sister chromatids, move to
chromatids, occur at any separate poles.
locations on chromosome, results  Centromeres do not split and
in new gene combinations on sister chromatids remain
chromosome. paired.
 Chiasmata – points where cross  Sister chromatids become
over occurs. daughter chromosomes.
4)  Nucleolus & nuclear membrane  Each pole receives the HALF
disappears. number of chromosomes as the
 Centrioles migrate to poles. parent cell.
n
4) TELOPHASE I
 The chromosomes are at the poles.
 Each pole has haploid daughter
chromosomes.
 Spindle fibre disappears.
 Nucleolus & nuclear membrane reforms.
CYTOKINESIS Each of the 2 daughter
 Resulting in 2 haploid daughter cells. Each cell has cells is now haploid (n),
1 chromosome from a homologous pair. with HALF the number of
 No Interphase before Meiosis II starts. No DNA chromosomes per
replication. Chromosomes remained condensed. nucleus.

In some species, the

nuclear membrane
briefly forms around the
chromosomes.

 The cell now proceeds

into meiosis II, with the
chromosomes remaining
Daughter cells
condensed.

 Meiosis I proceeds
directly to meiosis II
without going
through interphase.
MEIOSIS II
 n Meiosis II, resembles Mitosis
1)
Chromosomal numbers, which have already
been reduced to Haploid (n) by the end of
meiosis I, remain unchanged after this division.

2) 1) PROPHASE II 2) METAPHASE II
 Nucleolus &  Chromosomes as sister
nuclear membrane chromatids are aligned
disappears. randomly at metaphase plate.
 Spindle fibre  Still attached to spindle fibre at
reforms centromere.

3) 3) ANAPHASE II
 Spindles are shortened. 4) TELOPHASE II
 Chromatids of each  Nucleolus & nuclear
chromosome have separated membrane are
(divide at the centromeres). reforming.
 The resulting chromosomes,  Spindle fibre
each with one chromatid disappears.
4) moving towards the poles.
 Each pole receives the same
number of chromosomes as
the parent cell.
n
CYTOKINESIS
 4 haploid daughter cells are formed. Each
contains half number chromosomes, gene from
parent cell. These cells = Gametes.
 Single
chromatid

Daughter
cells
GAMETES

These 4 cells:
 HAPLOID CELLS (Daughter cells) = HALF no. of chromosomes of the Parent cell (23
chromosomes).

 Cells are not identical, crossing over in prophase I and random arrangements of
bivalents in metaphase I leads to different genetic composition of these cells.

 In humans, meiosis produces genetically different haploid daughter cells, each with
23 chromosomes that consist of one chromatid. These haploid cells become
unfertilized eggs in females and sperm in males. The genetic differences ensure
siblings of the same parents are never entirely genetically identical.
 Synapsis
Blue = AA Blue = Aa
Red = aa Red = Aa

 Synapsis = process when homologous chromosomes pair up.

 Crossing over = process in which non-sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA.

 This leads to genetic recombination (exchange of genetic material) between the

chromatids (1 from Father, 1 from Mother).

 BLUE and RED chromosomes, which originally carried AA and aa alleles,

respectively, now carry Aa alleles in both chromosomes at the end of prophase I.

 Note that these bivalents have 2 chromosomes and 4 sister chromatids,

with 1 chromosome originating from each parent.

 The point where a crossover occurs is called a chiasma (plural chiasmata).

 22+ X 22+ X 22+ X 22+ X

22+ X 22+ X 22+ Y 22+ Y

Ovum Sperm Zygote

FERTILIZATION
 Sex Chromosomes

 The male gametes or sperm cells in humans and other mammals contain one of two types
of sex chromosomes. They are either X or Y.

 The female gametes or eggs however, contain only the X sex chromosome.

 The sperm cell determines the sex of an individual in this case. If a sperm cell containing
an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be XX or female. If the sperm
cell contains a Y chromosome, then the resulting zygote will be XY or male.
 MITOSIS SIMILARITY MEIOSIS
DNA replicates only once

DIFFERENCES
Somatic cells Cell type Cells in reproductive
organs
Produce new cells for Role Produce gametes for
growth & repair sexual reproduction
Chromosomes arrange Metaphase of Mitosis Homologous
individually at plate Metaphase I chromosomes arrange
side by side at plate
Sister chromatids Anaphase of Mitosis Homologous
separate Anaphase I chromosomes separate,
sister chromatids still remain
attached
No Synapsis Yes, to form bivalents
No Crossing over Yes, between non-sister
chromatids
 MITOSIS MEIOSIS

DIFFERENCES
1 No. of divisions 2
2 No. of daughter cells 4
46, diploid (2n) Chromosome 23, haploid (n)
number of daughter
cells
Identical Genetic content Different
No Genetic variation Yes
 Importance of Meiosis
 Ensure diploid number chromosomes is maintained from one
generation to next.
 Provide genetic variations.
 Leads to genetic recombinations:

a) Prophase I – Crossing over. Genetic material exchange between

non-sister chromatids of a bivalent. Formation of new gene
combination on a chromosome.
b) Metaphase I – Random arrangement or Independent assortment.
Homologous chromosomes arranged independently, randomly at
metaphase plate.

 Gametes have different gene combinations. Random fertilization

of ovum by a sperm results in genetic variation in organisms.
 Appreciating movement of chromosomes
 Asexual reproduction through Mitosis
produce offspring identical to parent.
Sexual reproduction through Meiosis
produce genetic variability in offspring.

 If meiosis does not occur properly,

gametes formed will have abnormal
number of chromosomes. Zygote formed
later be abnormal. Eg; Down’s syndrome –
result of extra chromosome 21, each body
cell has a total of 47 chromosomes instead
of 46. Have certain characteristics include
small body & mental retardation.

 Certain environmental agents – radiation,

chemicals, food contains preservations,
carcinogenic disrupt process mitosis &
meiosis, change DNA structure.
LET’S REVISE
FIRST
During which phase of mitosis
does the cell copy its DNA?

a) Prophase
b) Metaphase
c) Anaphase
d) Interphase
 How many daughter cells are
produced at the end of mitosis

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
 How many nuclear divisions does a cell
go through for mitosis? How many times
does the nucleus divide?

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
  These are usually found at the opposite
ends of a cell during mitosis or meiosis and
they are used to help pull the cell apart

a) Centromere
b) Centrioles
c) Chromosome
d) Nucleus
 How many chromosomes are
in the human egg cell or
human sperm cell?

a) 46 in the egg; 46 in the sperm

b) 23 in th egg; 23 in the sperm
c) 46 in the egg; 23 in the sperm
d) 24 in each
 What is the correct order of
steps in the cell cycle?

a) Mitosis, interphase, cytokinesis

b) Cytokinesis, interphase, mitosis
c) Interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis
d) Interphase, cytokinesis, mitosis
  Time period when a cell is
carrying on normal processes
and not actively dividing

a) Cell cycle
b) Mitosis
c) Interphase
d) Somatic cycle
  After mitosis takes place, the daughter
cells have what number of chromosomes
as compared to the parent cell?

a) Half
b) Double
c) Same
 Egg and sperm are types of
sex cells called

a) Zygote
b) Embryo
c) Gamete
d) Somatic cells
 How many chromosomes and
chromatids shown in picture?

a) 4 chromosomes, 4 chromatids
b) 4 chromosomes, 8 chromatids
c) 8 chromosomes, 4 chromatids
d) 8 chromosomes, 8 chromosomes
What must this cell do before it can carry
out mitosis?

a) Replicates its DNA

b) Nuclear division
c) Cytokinesis
 This cell is in which stage
of mitosis?

a) Prophase
b) Metaphase
c) Anaphase
d) Telophase
 Meiosis results in how
many daughter cells?

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
  A key difference between daughter
cells resulting from mitosis and
meiosis is that:

a) After meiosis, cells are diploid. After mitosis, cells are haploid
b) After meiosis cells are haploid. After mitosis cells are diploid
c) After meiosis there are 4 daughter cells. After mitosis there is 1
daughter cell
 In humans, the 4 daughter
cells of meiosis contain

a) 46 chromosomes
b) 23 chromosomes
c) 92 chromosomes
d) 24 chromosomes
 In humans, mitosis is used
for which of the following:

a) Growth
b) Renewal
c) Repair
d) All above
 Which of the following
stages contains no trace of
nuclear membrane?

a) Prophase I
b) Interphase
c) Anaphase I
d) Telophase I
  In which of the following
does DNA replication NOT
occur

a) Interphase of mitosis
b) Interphase I
c) Interphase II
d) None of above
 Which type of cell division
involved?

a) Mitosis
b) Meiosis
 Homologous chromosome pairs
(tetrads) exist during which
phase?

a) Prophase of mitosis
b) Prophase I of meiosis
c) Propahse II of meiosis
d) All prophase stages in mitosis and meiosis
Sarah inherits a new mutation from
her mother.  During which stage of
cell division did the mutation likely
occur?  

a) Prophase of mitosis
b) Cytokinesis
c) Prophase I of meiosis
d) Telophase of mitosis
Which type of reproduction
leads to increased genetic
variation in a population?

a) Asexual reproduction
b) Vegetative reproduction
c) Sexual reproduction