BASIC GEOGRAPHY

GEO. 11
SUMMER - A.Y. 2019-2020
LESSON 2:
THE MEANING OF THE UNIVERSE
• Defined the meaning of Universe;
• Discussed the different theories of the Universe;
• Described the solar system;
• Explained the structures of the Earth’s Surface;
• Discussed the meteorology of the Earth’s surface.
 The study of the Universe is one of the oldest disciplines in Physical Science.
In philosophy, it is called “cosmology” which discussed the existence and the
essence of the Universe. Scientist have already laid the foundation of astrono-
mical sciences, from the Big Bang Theory to Quantum Physics-then, all of these
are interrelated in studying the natural phenomenon the universe.
Theories of the Universe
1. BIG BANG Theory 6. Pulsating Theory
2. Planetisimal Theory 7. Steady State Theory
3. Nebular Theory 8. Biblical Basis
4. Cosmic Theory
5. Quantum Theory
SOLAR
SYSTEM AND
THE EARTH
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
BASIC GEOGRAPHY
GEO. 1
SUMMER - A.Y. 2019-2020
LESSON 3:
LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH
Objectives:
At the end of the Lesson:
• Define what are plate tectonics.
• Discuss modern theories on plate tectonics.
• Study and understand the continental drift theory .
• Identify the seven continents of the world; and
• Understand each distinct features and characteristics of each
continent.
 The History of Continental Drift
1. Plate Tectonics defined.

2.   What did Plate Tectonics replace?

3.  Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift.

  Evidence
Theory
Outcome
Important Terms:
Plate: The Earth’s
crust consists of a
number of mobile
plates, masses of
crust that move
independently of
adjacent plates.
 Tectonics: dealing with
structural features of the
Earth (e.g., mountains, ocean
basins).

Plate Tectonics: The

process that involves the
interaction of moving crustal
plates and results in major
structural features of the
Earth.

A unifying theory in geology that explains a wide range of geologic phenomena.

MODERN THEORIES
 MODERN THEORIES
1. Diastrophism
 MODERN THEORIES
1. Diastrophism cont.

Definition:
Diastrophism is the large-scale deformation of the Earth’s crust by
natural processes. It leads to the formation of continents and ocean
basins, mountain systems, plateaus, rift valleys, and other features.
The deformations are caused by mechanisms such as lithospheric
plate movement (plate tectonics), volcanic loading, or folding.
STRESS AND STRAIN
Stress – is force applied per unit area

When a rock is subjected to stress, it deforms and is said to strain.

A strain is a change in size, shape, or volume of a material.
Uniform Stress – is a stress wherein all the forces act equally from
all directions

Pressure – a type of uniform stress

Confining Stress – a uniform
stress/pressure exerted by the Confining Stress
(equal forces from all directions)
weight of overlying rocks.
 TYPES OF DEFORMATION WHEN
ROCKS ARE SUBJECTED TO STRESS:

• Faults - fracture of rock with

displacement.

• Folds - bending of rock without

breaking (including tilting).

• Joints - fracture of rock without

displacement. Joints affect the resistance of
the rock to erosion by weakening the rock
and making it susceptible to weathering.
 TYPES OF DEFORMATION WHEN
ROCKS ARE SUBJECTED TO STRESS:
FAULTS
Faults occur when brittle rocks fracture and there is an offset or movement
along the fracture. When the offset is small, the displacement can be easily
measured, but sometimes the displacement is so large that it is difficult to
measure.
 TYPES OF FAULTS
• Normal Faults - are faults that result from horizontal tensional stresses in brittle
rocks and where the hanging-wall block has moved down relative to the footwall block.
TYPES OF FAULTS
• Reverse Faults - are faults that result from horizontal compressional stresses in
brittle rocks, where the hanging-wall block has moved up relative the footwall block.
TYPES OF FAULTS
• Strike Slip Faults - are faults where the relative motion on the fault has taken place
along a horizontal direction. These are caused by shear stresses acting in the crust.
Strike slip faults can be of two varieties. To an observer standing on one side of the
fault and looking across the fault, if the block on the other side has moved to the left, it
is a left-lateral strike-slip fault. If the block on the other side has moved to the right, it
is a right-lateral strike-slip fault.
 TYPES OF DEFORMATION WHEN
FOLDS ROCKS ARE SUBJECTED TO STRESS:

When rocks deform in a ductile manner, instead of

fracturing to form faults, they may bend or fold, and the
resulting structures are called folds.

Folds result from compressional stresses acting over

considerable time. Because the strain rate is low, rocks that
we normally consider brittle can behave in a ductile
manner resulting in such folds.
TYPES OF FOLDS

Monoclines are the simplest types of folds. Monoclines occur when horizontal
strata are bent upward so that the two limbs of the fold are still horizontal.
TYPES OF FOLDS

Anticlines are folds where the originally horizontal strata has been folded
upward, and the two limbs of the fold dip away from the hinge of the
fold.

his anticline is in Alberta, Canada in the Rocky Mountains

TYPES OF FOLDS
Synclines are folds where the originally horizontal strata have been
folded downward, and the two limbs of the fold dip inward toward the
hinge of the fold. Synclines and anticlines usually occur together such
that the limb of a syncline is also the limb of an anticline.
CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS

• If the folding is so intense that the

strata on one limb of the fold becomes
nearly upside down, the fold is called
an overturned fold.

• A fold that has no curvature in its

hinge and straight-sided limbs that
form a zigzag pattern is called a
chevron fold.
CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS

• An overturned fold with an axial plane

that is nearly horizontal is called a
recumbant fold.

• If the compressional stresses that cause

the folding are intense, the fold can
close up and have limbs that are
parallel to each other. This is called an
isoclinal fold (‘iso’ – same, ‘cline’ –
angle; isoclinal – limbs have the same
angle). Note the isoclinal fold depicted
in the diagram is also a symmetrical
fold.
 TYPES OF DEFORMATION WHEN
ROCKS ARE SUBJECTED TO STRESS:
JOINTS
 MODERN THEORIES
2. Contracting Earth Theory
· Shrinking resulted in
a reduction in the
Earth’s diameter while
the circumference
remained unchanged
due to folding and
buckling of the crust
(diastrophism).
 MODERN THEORIES
3. Convection Theory
 MODERN THEORIES
4. Continental drift Theory
 Continental Drift

First evidence: The jigsaw fit of the outline of the continental margins.
Frances Bacon (1620): while reviewing the first maps of the coastlines of
Africa and South America noted that the outlines of the continents appear as
if they could fit together.
In 1858 Antonio Snider-Pellegrini made the following Continental Drift
“before and after” maps of South America and Africa.
 Continental Drift

This “jigsaw” fit of continental

margins is best when the outline
is the edges of the continental
shelves.
Frances Placet (1668) was the first to suggest that the continents were
actually fixed together as suggested by their outlines.
Suggested that the continents had been torn apart by the biblical flood.

Alfred Wegener became the “father of continental drift” by

amassing considerable supporting evidence that the continents
moved over time.
Born: Germany, 1880
PhD: Astronomy
Profession: Meteorologist and Greenland Explorer.
Died: 1930
In 1915 Wegener published his work in The Origin of the
Continents and Oceans.
 Wegener’s Evidence:
The presence of fossils only over small areas of now Continental Drift
separate continents (how did they get from continent to
continent?).
 Continental Drift
Paleoclimate evidence
In the modern world
glaciers are found near
the north and south
poles.
Deserts are largely
found in bands that are
parallel to the equator.

Extensive reef
complexes lie along the
equator.
 Continental Drift
Desert deposits and reefs that
are several hundred million
years old are found in bands
that suggest the equator was
oriented as shown on the left.

If we assume that the poles

and equator are fixed, the
continents must have been in
different positions as shown
on the left.
 Continental Drift
Glacial deposits,
including structures
that indicate ice flow,
direction are located
in ancient rocks as
shown on the left.

Wegener suggested
that the pattern
formed with
continents together
at the south pole.
Wegener’s Conclusions: Continental Drift

1. That the continents were once joined. Therefore, they

must have moved apart over time.

2. Contracting Earth theory was not consistent with the

facts.

Wegener proposed a mechanism for continental drift:

pushing of the continents by gravitational forces that
derived from the sun and the moon (similar to tides).
MODERN THEORIES
MODERN THEORIES
1. Diastrophism
2. Contracting Earth Theory
3. Convection Theory

4. Continental drift Theory

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED? GET READY TO TAKE A
QUIZ!
1. HOW MANY CONTINENTS ARE THERE?

A. Six
B. Seven
C. Eight
D. Nine

Answer: B
2. WHAT CONTINENT DO WE LIVE ON?

A. South America
B. North America
C. Africa
D. Asia

Answer: D
3. WHICH IS THE LARGEST CONTINENT?

A. North America
B. Australia
C. China
D. Asia

Answer: D
4. WHICH CONTINENT WOULD YOU VISIT
IF YOU WANTED TO SEE THE AMAZON
RAINFOREST?
A. Asia
B. South America
C. Africa
Answer: B
D. Antarctica
5. WHY ARE THERE NO PEOPLE LIVING IN ANTARCTICA?

A. It is too hot
B. It is too far away
C. It is too cold
D. It is a boring place Answer: C
6. HOW MUCH OF THE EARTH IS COVERED
IN WATER?
A. Half
B. Less than half
C. None
D. More than half

Answer: D
7. WHY ARE THERE SO MANY DIFFERENT LANGUAGES
SPOKEN IN EUROPE?

A. People there don’t like each other

B. There are almost 50 countries and many have their own language
C. Everyone there speaks English
D. People in Europe learn to speak Spanish in school
Answer: B
8. WHICH OF THESE ANIMALS COMES FROM
AUSTRALIA?
A. Kangaroo
B. Buffalo
C. Lion
D. Penguin

Answer: A
9. WHAT ARE THE THREE BIGGEST COUNTRIES IN NORTH AMERICA?

A. Canada, China, USA

B. Canada, Mexico, USA
C. USA, Spain, China
D. Asia, North America, Africa Answer: A
10. WHY IS AFRICA THE HOTTEST CONTINENT?

A. It is near Florida
B. It is cold
C. The equator goes through it
D. The continent is on fire Answer: C
GREAT JOB!!!
BASIC GEOGRAPHY
GEO. 1
SUMMER - A.Y. 2019-2020
QUESTIONS?