Principles of Anatomy and Physiology: The Cellular Level of Organization

Principles of Anatomy
and Physiology
Fifteenth Edition
Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson
Chapter 3
The Cellular Level of Organization
Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction
The purpose of the chapter is to:
1. Introduce the parts of a cell
2. Discuss the importance of the plasma
membrane
3. Discuss the components of the cytoplasm
4. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis
5. Understand the effects aging has on the cell
PARTS OF A CELL
Structures of a Cell
Cell Anatomy Link

Parts of a Cell
The cell can be subdivided into 3 parts:

1. Plasma (cell) membrane
2. Cytoplasm
• Cytosol
• Organelles
3. Nucleus
• Chromosomes
• Genes
Cell Anatomy Link

THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
The Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is a flexible yet sturdy
barrier that surrounds and contains the
cytoplasm of the cell
Membrane Anatomy Link

Membrane Proteins
Two types of membrane proteins are
1. Integral (also called transmembrane) proteins
2. Peripheral proteins
Membrane Anatomy Link

Functions of
Membrane Proteins
 Membrane proteins
can serve a variety of
functions
 The different proteins
help determine many
of the functions of
the cell membrane
Membrane Fluidity
 Membranes are fluid structures because
most of the membrane lipids and many of the
membrane proteins move easily in the bilayer
Membrane Permeability
Plasma membranes are selectively permeable
 The lipid bilayer is always permeable to small,
nonpolar, uncharged molecules
 Transmembrane proteins that act as channels or
transporters increase the permeability of the
membrane
 Macromolecules are only able to pass through the
plasma membrane by vesicular transport
Gradients Across the Plasma
Membrane
 A concentration gradient is the difference in
the concentration of a chemical between one
side of the plasma membrane and the other
 An electrical gradient is the difference in
concentration of ions between one side of the
plasma membrane and the other
 Together, these gradients make up an
electrochemical gradient
TRANSPORT ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Transport Across the Plasma
Membrane
Transport processes that move substances
across the cell membrane are:
 Passive processes
 Simple diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active processes
 Primary and Secondary transport
 Vesicular transport
Passive Transport: Simple Diffusion
Diffusion is influenced
by:
1. Steepness of the
concentration
gradient
2. Temperature
3. Mass of diffusion
substance
4. Surface area
5. Diffusion distance
Passive Transport: Facilitated
Diffusion
Transmembrane proteins help solutes that are
too polar or too highly charged move through
the lipid bilayer
The processes involved are:
 Channel mediated facilitated diffusion
 Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion
Diffusion: A Comparison
Passive Transport: Channel Mediated
Facilitated Diffusion
Passive Transport: Carrier Mediated
Facilitated Diffusion
Passive Transport: Osmosis
The net movement of a solvent through a
selectively permeable membrane from an area
of high concentration to an area of low
concentration
Tonicity
Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution
influences the shape of body cells
Active Transport: Primary
Energy derived from ATP changes the shape of
a transporter protein which pumps a substance
across a plasma membrane against its
concentration gradient
Active Transport
in Vesicles:
Receptor-
mediated
Endocytosis
Active Transport in Vesicles:
Phagocytosis
Active Transport in Vesicles: Bulk
Phase Endocytosis (Pinocytosis)
Active Transport in Vesicles:
Exocytosis & Transcytosis
 Exocytosis – membrane-enclosed secretory
vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and
release their contents into the extracellular
fluid
 Transcytosis – a combination of endocytosis
and exocytosis used to move substances
from one side of a cell, across it, and out the
other side
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm has 2 components:

1. Cytosol - also known as the intracellular fluid
portion of the cytoplasm
2. Organelles - the specialized structures that have
specific shapes and perform specific functions
Cytoskeleton
Centrosome/Centrioles
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and Flagella
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Complex
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are structures that are similar in
shape to lysosomes, but are smaller and
contain enzymes that use oxygen to oxidize
(break down) organic substances
Proteasomes
Proteasomes are barrel-shaped structures that
destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins
by cutting long proteins into smaller peptides
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Nucleus
 The nucleus
contains the
hereditary units of
the cell, called genes
 Genes are arranged

along chromosomes
Gene Expression
Protein Synthesis:
Transcription
Transcription occurs in
the nucleus and is the
process by which
genetic information
encoded in DNA is
copied onto a strand of
RNA to direct protein
synthesis
Protein Synthesis: Translation
Translation occurs in the nucleus and is the
process of reading the mRNA nucleotide
sequence to determine the amino acid
sequence of the newly formed protein
Protein
Synthesis
During
Transcription
Replication of
DNA
Cell Division
Cell division is a process by which cells
reproduce themselves
 Cell cycle
Interphase
 G1 phase
 S
 G2 phase
Mitosis
 Mitosis occurs when the nucleus of a cell
divides
 Mitosis results in the distribution of 2 sets of
chromosomes into 2 separate nuclei
 Mitosis is divided into 4 steps:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Mitosis: Prophase
During prophase chromatin condenses into
chromosomes and the nuclear membrane
disappears and centrosomes move to opposite
poles
Mitosis: Metaphase
During metaphase centromeres of
chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
Mitosis: Anaphase
During anaphase centromeres of chromosomes
split and sister chromatids move toward
opposite poles of the cell
Mitosis: Telophase
During telophase the mitotic spindle dissolves,
chromosomes regain their chromatin
appearance, and a new nuclear membrane
forms
Cytokinesis
During cytokinesis
a cleavage furrow
forms and
eventually the
cytoplasm of the
parent cell fully
splits
 When this is
complete,
interphase begins
Events of the Somatic Cell Cycle
Control of Cell Destiny
3 possible destinies:
1. Remain alive and functioning without dividing
2. Grow and divide
3. Die
Cellular Diversity
Aging and Cells
As we age:
 Our cells gradually deteriorate in their ability
function normally and in their ability to respond to
environmental stresses
 The numbers of our body cells decreases
 We lose the integrity of the extracellular
components of our tissues
Disorders
 Cancer
 Melanoma
 Sarcoma
 Osteogenic sarcoma
 Leukemia
 Lymphoma
 Growth and spread
 Causes
 Treatments
End of Chapter 3
Copyright 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this
work beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976
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Principles of Anatomy

Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson

Cell Anatomy Link

The cell can be subdivided into 3 parts:

Cell Anatomy Link

Membrane Anatomy Link

Membrane Anatomy Link

The cytoplasm has 2 components:

 Genes are arranged

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