EXTINCTION EVENTS

WHAT IS EXTINCTION?
 In biology or ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or a group
of organisms, normally a species.

 Where a lineage has changed such that a new (daughter) species is

recognized, the extinction of the original (parent) species may also be
called pseudoextinction.

 Some misconception regarding extinctions are:

1. Extinctions are thought to be rare.
2. Extinction is viewed as negative process.
3. Simple disappearance of species is
often misunderstood as destruction.
(J.D.Archibald, 1997).
 WHEN DO WE CALL AN EXTINCTION ---
‘MASS EXTINCTION’?

 The major difference between normal and mass extinction is one

of scale. Although it is difficult to provide a specific figure
because of the vagaries of fossil record and differences between
environments and different kind of organisms, it can be safely said
that normal extinction is below (often well below) 50%. During
the past 540 mys five major extinction events have been
recognised when percentage of extinctions were well over 50%
and those extinctions were referred as mass extinctions.
(J.D.Archibald, 1997).
CONCEPT OF HISTORY OF EXTINCTION
 In 1786, George Cuvier, the French
paleontologist first proposed the concept of
extinction. According to his view, the entire
geological record was the product of enormous
upheavals of supernatural origin. This view
supports ‘catastrophism’, which was the most
popular concept at that time. (Stanley, 1988)

 Catastrophism was challenged in 1830s by

Charles Lyell. According to his idea, the
geological record had been produced gradually,
over the course of millions of years, by the
operation of everyday earthly processes.
(Stanley, 1988)
 In nineteenth century, after Charles Lyell it was thought that mass
extinctions are the result of gradualist processes. (Stanley, 1988)

 In 1980, Alvarez et al found high iridium concentration on KT boundary,

which is due to asteroid impact favouring catastrophist model. (Stanley,
1988)

 Other evidences supporting catastrophism also recovered from other

horizons indicating mass extinction . (Stanley, 1988)

 This debate is still on: whether it is gradualist or catastrophist or

combination of both. (Stanley, 1988)
MASS EXTINCTION: IS IT ONLY THE ENDING?

 Mass extinctions accelerated the evolution of life on Earth.

 The shifting of dominance from one particular group to another

was triggered by mass extinction events because an extinction
event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the
new one. (Benton, 2004)

 Another point of view is that, after mass extinction, species

diversity becomes low and ecological niches become vacant which
give rise the opportunities for new variants to become established.
(Palmer, 1998)
 SOME CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
 SELECTIVITY:
Major extinction events are selective. Some aspects of organismal
biology appear to be related to resistance to extinction. Large
population size, broad geographic distribution and high dispersal
potential can protect species and higher taxa from extinction in the
case of background extinction. This can break down at mass
extinction. In the case of mass extinctions large body size appears
to be disadvantageous, at least among terrestrial animals. (Raup,
1986)

 PERIODICITY:
Time series analysis of mass extinction events over the past 540
million years (Raup and Sepkoski measured 8 mass extion events)
suggests a 26 million year periodicity. (Raup and Sepkoski, 1986)
 If we take a look at the history of the earth (540 million years),
five major mass extinction events are well documented. These
major five mass extinctions are:

 Ordovician-Silurian Extinction Event.

 Devonian-Carboniferous Extinction Event.
 Permian-Triassic Extinction Event.
 Triassic-Jurassic Extinction Event.
 Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction Event.

Now we will briefly discuss these five mass extinction events.

 PERMIAN TRIASSIC EXTINCTION
 The mass extinction event at the Permian Triassic boundary, is accepted
the most profound loss of life on the Earth. (Benton et al, 2004).
 Uncertainty exists regarding the duration of this overall extinction
episode. According to Stanley and Young (1994) and Sahney and Benton
(2008) there were two mass extinction events – one at the end of
Guadalupian (Middle Permian) (~ 271-260) and the other at the end of
the Permian. But Ward et al (2005), suggested that the extinction event
was spread out over a few million years, with a very sharp peak in the
last 1 million years of the Permian.

Marine extinction intensity through time.

The blue graph shows the
apparent percentage (not the absolute
number) of marine animal genera
becoming extinct during any given time
interval. It does not represent all marine
species, just those that are readily fossilized.
 EFFECT ON LIFE
 More than 96% of shallow marine invertebrates and more than 70% of
land tetrapod genera and a large number of plants became extinct in this
event. (Benton, 2005, Erwin, 1993, Retallack, 2006).
 The classic sequence of Permian Bellerophon Formation and overlying
Werfen Formation in the Alps and the Permian Changxing Formation of
south China record 91% disappearance of species including 98% of
ammnoid species, 85% of bivalve species and 75% of shallow water
fusulinid foraminifera. (Myer, 1994)
 The well studied vertebrate faunas from Karoo basin revealed that 21 of
27 families of reptiles and 6 of 9 amphibian families disappeared in the
Latest Permian, for an overall 75% drop in diversity. (Myer, 1994)
 Among insects 27 orders have been recorded from the Permian, of which
8 disappear during the Late Permian. (Myer, 1994)
CAUSES OF THIS EXTINCTION
 VOLCANISM
The flood basalt eruptions that produced the
Siberian Traps constituted one of the largest
known volcanic events on Earth and
covered over 2,000,000 square kilometres
(770,000 sq mi) with lava. This events
happened immediately before the end
Permian (251.2±0.3 my ago) and was one of
the possible causes of end Permian mass
extinction event. (Reichow et al, 2009)

The Emeishan volcanism (at

southwest China) occurred at end
Guadalupin time (260 my ago) and
suggested as one of the causes of end
Guadalupian mass extinction event.
(Wignall et al, 2009)
 IMPACT EVENT

The Bedout High, located on the

northwestern continental margin of
Australia, considered as an end-Permian
impact structure (Ar/Ar age of this crater
is 250.1 ± 4.5 mys). This impact event is
regarded as one of the cause of end
Permian mass extinction events. (Becker
et al, 2004)

Another impact structure which was

also thought to be related to end
Permian mass extinction event, was the
Wilkes Land crater of East
Antarctica. (Frese et al, 2006)
 RELEASE OF METHANE GAS
Retallack et al (2003) propose that the vertebrate extinction across the
Permian-Triassic boundary was related to massive methane release.
This methane gas is released from permafrost and from submarine
clatharates (Retallack, 2005). Recently Retallack and Jahren (2008)
suggested that this methane gas was released by fracturing and heating
of coal during intrusion of large igneous provinces. This gas consumed
O2 and oxidised to CO2 which produced greenhouse effect. Thus this
methane gas played a major role in Permian-Triassic mass extinction.
 LIFE AFTER THIS BIGGEST EXTINCTION

Close study of ecosystems showed that ecological recovery after

this biggest extinction was slower. But it regained its position in
Late Triassic when dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodilians,
rauisuchids, aetosaurs, rhynchosaurs, trilophosaurs, sphenodonts,
amphibians and mammals appeared. (Shaney and Benton, 2007)
 TRIASSIC JURASSIC EXTINCTION
 The Triassic Jurassic extinction event happened 199.6 million years ago
and marks the boundary between Triassic and Jurassic period. (Whiteside
et al, 2005)
 Benton (1986,1984) suggested two different episodes of tetrapod
extinction during the Triassic– one at the end of the Carnian and the
other at the end-Triassic.
 Close examination reveals that many groups such as ammnoids, bivalves
and conodonts are severely affected by this event whereas some other
groups left relatively unaffected.

Marine extinction intensity through time.

The blue graph shows the
apparent percentage (not the absolute
number) of marine animal genera
becoming extinct during any given time
interval. It does not represent all marine
species, just those that are readily fossilized.
 EFFECT ON LIFE
 Marine life suffered heavily by this extinction. Almost 103 families of
marine invertebrates became extinct at this event. Cephalpods,
gastropods, bivalves, articulate brachiopods, ammnoids affected severely.
(Tanner, 2004)
 Marine and freshwater fishes documented a decline of 33%. (Benton,
1991)
 64% of marine reptile families became extinct at this event. (Tanner,
2004)
 Only one family of amphibians (plagiosaurid) became extinct at the end
of the Triassic. Capitosaurids, metoposaurids, latiscopids became extinct
at Norian-Rhaetian boundary. (Tanner, 2004)
 11 terrestrial reptile families (Proganochelyidae, Kuehneosauridae,
Pachystropheidae, Trilophosauridae, Phytosauridae, Stagonolepididae,
Rauisuchidae, Ornithosuchidae, Saltoposuchidae, Thecodontosauridae
and Traversodontidae) also became extinct. (Tanner, 2004)
CAUSES OF THIS EXTINCTION
 VOLCANISM

One possible cause of this extinction

was enormous basaltic volcanism
which was related to Pangean rifting.
These volcanic province is known as
Central Atlantic Magmatic Province
(CAMP) and covered a substantial
portion of northern and central Brazil,
eastern North America, northern
South America, western Africa and
southwestern Iberia (~11X106 km 2
area. ) (Tanner, 2004)
 IMPACT EVENT

Manicouagan Lake
Manicouagan crater (Nasa Image)

End Triassic extinction resulted from the impact responsible for the largest
known Upper Triassic crater, Manicouagan structure (~100 km diameter) in
the NE of Canada (age ~214my). Puchezh-Katunki structure (~80km
diameter) in Russia, Saint Martin structure in NW Canada, Rochechouart
structure in France, Oblon structure in Ukarine, Red Wing structure in North
Dakota, USA were also reported. (Tanner, 2004)
 LIFE AFTER THIS EXTINCTION

This extinction event was followed by a radiation of five

families of dinosaurs, mammal like reptiles, 13 families  of
turtles, crocodilomorphs, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, lepidosaurs
and mammals.
 CRETACEOUS TERTIARY MASS EXTINCTION

 The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, occurred ~65.5

million years ago at the end of the Maastrichtian and marks
the end of the Mesozoic era and beginning of Cenozoic era.
(Fortey, 1999)
 The most characteristic feature of this event is the total
extinction of dinosaurs and evolution of mammals.

Marine extinction intensity through time.

The blue graph shows the
apparent percentage (not the absolute
number) of marine animal genera
becoming extinct during any given time
interval. It does not represent all marine
species, just those that are readily
fossilized.
 EFFECT ON MARINE LIFE
 Effect of extinction on microbiota is quite nominal. Radiolaria and large
number of species of diatom survived this extinction. But a large number
of planktic and benthic foraminifera became extinct at that time.
(Macleod, 1997)
 Solitary corals of deeper sea were relatively unaffected than the colonial
corals; 98% of these became extinct by this event. (Macleod, 1997)
 Among other invertebrates most of the species of cephalopoda (except
nautiloids and coleoids), 35% species of echinoderms, rudists, became
extinct at the K-T boundary. (Macleod, 1997)
 Among the fishes, only the cartilaginous fishes (20% family became
extinct) and the teleost fishes (10% family became extinct) suffered by
this extinction. (Macleod, 1997)
 Plesiosaurs, mesosaurs dissappeared after this extinction event. (Benton,
2005)
 EFFECT ON TERRESTRAIL LIFE
 Only 20% of turtle species said to be extinct at this boundary. (Macleod,
1997)
 ~50% of the crocodilomorph survived this extinction which may be due
to their aquatic niche and ability to burrow, subsequently increasing their
susceptibility. (Macleod, 1997)
 All pterosaur families except Azhdarchidae became extinct before
Maastrichtian. (Macleod, 1997)
 Non-avian dinosaurs could not cross the K-T boundary. Among the avian
dinosaurs all non-neornithean birds became extinct, including flourishing
groups like enantiornithines and hesperornithiforms. (Macleod, 1997)
 In case of mammals the rate of extinction was less then 15%. (Benton,
2005)
CAUSES OF THIS EXTINCTION
 IMPACT EVENT

The K-T boundary exposure in Trinidad lake State Park, in the

Raton Basin of Colorado
End Cetaceous mass extinction resulted from the impact event responsible for the
formation of Chicxulub Crater buried under Chicxulub on the coast of  Yucatán,
Mexico (Keller,2009).
 MULTIPLE IMPACT EVENT
Several other impact craters such as, the Boltysh crater (24
kilometers in diameter) in Ukraine (65.17 ± 0.64 Ma), the
Silverpit crater (20 kilometers in diameter), are reported
from K-T boundary. This suggests in favour of multiple
impact history in K-T boundary. (Keller, 2003)
 VOLCANISM

Eruption of Deccan trap flood basalts

nearly 68 million years ago was
another possible cause of
Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction.
(Keller, 2008)
 LIFE AFTER K-T EVENT
 The most dramatic change after K-T event was the rise of mammals to
terrestrial dominance. (Stanley, 1988)
 The evolution of birds was another important incident after this mass
extinction. (Stanley, 1988)
 Grasses appeared and expanded throughout the world and vegetation that
supported life on the land was dominated by flowering plants. (Stanley,
1988)
 Calcareous nanoplanktons, diatoms and dinoflagellates started
dominating the marine life. Carnivorous snails, crabs and teleost fishes
served the role of marine predators. Whales and dolphins appeared later.
(Stanley, 1988)
 Corals regained their position in the Early Palaeogene time. (Stanley,
1988)
 The consensus among biologists is that we now are moving toward
another mass extinction- popularly known as 6th mass extinction.
(Eldrege, 2011)
 The main difference from last big 5 mass extinction is, this is
caused by the activity of a single species. (Eldrege, 2011)
 The average extinction rate is now some 1,000 to 10,000 times
faster than the rate that prevailed over the past 60 million years.
(http://www.well.com/user/davidu/fieldguide.html)
 Today nearly 5,500 animal species are known to be threatened
with extinction.
(http://www.well.com/user/davidu/fieldguide.html)