Development studies

Development studies is a multidisciplinary

branch of social science which addresses issues of
concern to developing countries.
It has historically placed a particular focus on
issues related to social and economic
development, and its relevance may therefore
extend to communities and regions outside of the
developing world.
Development studies is offered as a specialized
Master's degree in a number of universities, and,
less commonly, as an undergraduate degree.
It has grown in popularity as a subject of study
since the early 1990s, and has been most widely
taught and researched in the third world
Students of development studies often choose careers
in international organizations such as the United
Nations or the World Bank, non-governmental
organizations, private sector development
consultancy firms, and research centers.
Disciplines of development studies
Development studies is a broad field united primarily
by thematic concentration.
It encompasses and involves a variety of disciplines,
including:
Demography
Gender & Development
Environment &Development
Livelihood & Development
Development communication
Development theory
Development economics
Development anthropology
Development geography
Development Management
Development ethics etc
 History
The emergence of development studies as an academic
discipline in the second half of the twentieth century is in
large part due to increasing concern about economic
prospects for the third world after decolonization.
In the immediate post-war period, development
economics, a branch of economics, arose out of previous
studies in colonial economics.
By the 1960s, an increasing number of development
economists felt that economics alone could not fully
address issues such as political effectiveness and
educational provision.
Development studies arose as a result of this, initially
aiming to integrate ideas of politics and economics.
Since then, it has become an increasingly inter- and multi-
disciplinary subject, encompassing a variety of social
scientific fields
Chapter one
Holistic development
Holism (from ὅλος holos, a Greek word
meaning all, whole, entire, total) is the idea
that all the properties of a given system
(physical, biological, chemical, social,
economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) cannot be
determined or explained by its component
parts alone.
Instead, the system as a whole determines in
an important way how the parts behave.
The general principle of holism was concisely
summarized by Aristotle in the Metaphysics:
"The whole is more than the sum of its parts"
The term holism was introduced by the South African
statesman Jan Smuts in his 1926 book, Holism and
Evolution.
Smuts defined holism as "The tendency in nature to
form wholes that are greater than the sum of the parts
through creative evolution."
In Theology holism is the belief that the nature
of humans consists of an ultimately divisible
union of components such as body, soul and
spirit.
In philosophy, any doctrine that emphasizes
the priority of a whole over its parts is holism.
The term "holism" is additionally used within
social and cultural anthropology to refer to an
analysis of a society as a whole which refuses to
break society into component parts.
Holistic comes from the idea of holism-that
things need to be understood as a whole.
It is possible to analyze human development
under separate aspect such as physical,
intellectual, social and emotional development
but all these aspects interact with each other in
the life stories of real people.
What is holistic development?
The term Holistic Development can be defined as
systems perspective for the development of the entire
society or country.
In other words Holistic development means how the
entire society or economy can achieve development as
a whole.
Holistic development is a development that is
integral.
It covers all aspects of life: Physical, socio-economic,
education, political, religious etc
Chapter One
Development & under development
INTRODUCTION
Since the end of World War II, we have been
experiencing a worldwide struggle for the
improvement of living conditions in the so-
called developing countries.
At the beginning, there was little query as to
the causes of underdevelopment; the newly
independent countries as well as United
Nations bodies and industrialized countries
tried to promote development by applying
measures like
the introduction of know-how through the
assignment of experts,
the expansion of education,
the development of infrastructure, etc., i.e., they
followed the example of the industrialized
countries.
In the course of time it became obvious that this
was more or less a treatment of symptoms instead of
causes, and the gap gradually widened between the
developed and less developed countries of this
world.
During the early period of development efforts
there was little discussion on the historical
causes and the real nature of
underdevelopment.
Theoretical considerations at this time of "cold
war" explained the situation of
underdevelopment and the path for
development from the viewpoint of western or
socialist metropolis.
Only in more recent times has the viewpoint
of developing countries gained momentum in
development theory.
There are a great number of explanations for
underdevelopment and concepts of development.
Meaning of under development
The term under development is a relative concept.
It primarily implies a lack of development.
Economic development is a continuous process.
Indeed it is difficult to find two countries at the same
level of development.
Economists, for the sake of convenience, have divided
the economies of various countries broadly into two
categories.
Developed economies;
Under developed or developing economies.
Developed economies
Are highly characterized by higher levels of total
output/production and therefore by higher
consumption standards and more savings and
investments.
Are in in a position to provide better food, more
clothing and comfortable housings besides numerous
comfort and luxuries
Under developed economy
Is characterized by miserably/sadly low standard of
living.
The term “under development” has been defined in
different ways by different economists.
Nomenclature/ Classification
There are four names to represent these
economy/country
Under developed
Developing countries
Less developed countries (LDCs) and
The third world
Merits and demerits attached to these
typologies
1. Under developed nations
 Many people object this typology, because they
believed that this word convey a message that these
countries political, economic, cultural, social
systems are very backward.
 They could be poor economically but not socially or
culturally.
 It is a pejorative/ negative connotation.
2. Developing countries.
It shows a positive, progressive position, but
according to some writers it is excessively optimistic,
because not all countries are developing, some
countries are going backward.
3. LDCs
During the 1970, 1980 there were a lot of
problems in Africa & Latin America.
In the late 1990 the Asian tigers (Thailand,
Malaysia, Singapore,) showed a lot of progress
and their economy is developing rapidly.
Still during this time there were countries
whose economies are poor relatively to other
developing countries.
Thus, the UN used the terminology LDCs
4. Third world
If you have the third world, there must be 1 st and 2nd
world.
1st world: Japan, and the West.
2nd world: All former soviet block countries.
3rd world: Latin America, Africans,
Problems embedded in this
classification
1. It glosses over the many political & socio-economic
difference in the third world.
• It put them in one circle because Singapore & Thailand
are relatively economically richer than Afghanistan,
Ethiopia, Somalia etc.
2. The collapse of soviet communism and the
disintegration of the 2nd world and all of them aspiring
to join the 1st world.
Definition of under developed
economy.
It is not very easy to define an underdeveloped
economy, we shall briefly present some of its
definitions which are as follows:
The United Nations Expert Committee
observes, “ An under-developed country is one
in which per capita real income is low when
compared with the per capita real in come of
USA, Canada, Australia and Western Europe,.
According to G. M. Meiser, “An under
developed country is one which is extremely
poor relatively to other economies in rank with
the countries of the world by real income per
head, the underdeveloped countries would be
at the bottom.
According to Prof. Ragnar Nurkse,
underdeveloped countries are those which
“compared with the advanced countries are
under equipped with capital in relation to their
population and natural resources.
Others also defined an underdeveloped
country as one “which is characterized by the
coexistence, in great or less degree, of
unutilized or underutilized manpower, on the
one hand, and of unexploited natural resources
on the other.
Characteristics of under developed
economy.
In view of several studies, it is easy to point out
some of the general characteristics of under
developed countries, while it is very difficult to
locate a representative underdeveloped economy.
It is, hence, better to signify some of the basic
characteristics common to underdeveloped
countries, which may be as follows:
1. Primary producing economy
Under developed countries depend excessively
on agriculture and primary producing
activities.
What ever industries exist in such an
economy, they are mostly dealing with
processing of agricultural products.
This does not mean that countries like
Denmark, New Zealand which also depends
excessively on agricultural production are
underdeveloped countries.
Another characteristic of underdeveloped economy is low
productivity even in agriculture on account of primitive
techniques.
They suffer from poor communication, inadequate credit
facilities and excessive pressure of population on land.
Nearly 70% to 90% of the people live in the village and
depend upon agriculture for their livelihood.
For instance, in under developed countries, like India,
Kenya, Pakistan, Indonesia and Vietnam about 70 to 75%
percent of population lives in the rural areas and depends
on agriculture, while hardly 2.5 to 4% depends on
agriculture respectively in the USA , Canada & West
Germany.
2. Low per capita income and poverty
of theMany
mass economists have recognized low per capita
income and poverty of masses as one of the main
characteristics of underdeveloped countries.
Per capita income means how much each individual
receives, in monetary terms.
It is the measure of the amount of money that each
person earns in the country, of the yearly income
generated in the country.
This is what each citizen is to receive if the yearly
national income is divided equally among everyone.
Per capita income is usually reported in units of
currency per year.
Rank Country Per Capita Income in US$ (IMF 2009)
1. Qatar 83,841  
2. Luxembourg 78,395  
3. Norway 52,561
4. Singapore 50,523  
5. Brunei 49,110  
6. United States 46,381  
7. Switzerland 43,007
135  Djibouti 2,484
136  Yemen 2,458
137  Sudan 2,380
148  Kenya 1,730
168  Ethiopia 954
169  Afghanistan 935
170  Mozambique 934
171  Madagascar 932
172  Malawi 885
173  Togo 826
174  Sierra Leone 759
175  Central African Republic 745
176  Niger 719
177  Eritrea 680
178  Liberia 424
179  Burundi 400
180  Zimbabwe 355
181  Congo, Democratic Republic of the 332
3. Low productivity
The low productivity is caused by low per capita income in
developing nations.
There is a wide disparity of productivity, particularly in
agricultural sector. Between the advanced and the poor
countries.
The agricultural output per worker in advanced countries,
like the USA, Canada and West European countries is at
least 40% more than that in developing countries.
Also, in industrial sector, disparities of
productivity are marked in between the advanced
and underdeveloped countries.
In an American industry the average worker
produces about seven times more than what is
produced by a worker in India, Pakistan, and
China.
The main reasons for low level of productivity in
the developing nations are:
The lower per capita income,
Illiteracy of the masses,
Smaller use of machines,
Lack of implementation of latest production
techniques and
Inability of entrepreneurship
4. Dualistic economy
The underdeveloped countries present sharp
contrast in all walks of life.
There is the old and new, developed &
underdeveloped, the educated & the illiterate,
the rich & the poor existing side by side.
There are pockets of extra rich and ultra
modern people and vast masses steeped in
poverty.
There are efficient modern industries and the
languishing/ fade away indigenous handcrafts,
and so on.
5. Economic inequalities
Another distinguishing characteristic of the
underdeveloped economies is the disparities in
income & wealth enjoyed by the rich and poor
sections of the society.
The lower national in come of the economically
backward countries is more inequitably distributed
than in the advanced countries.
6. Insufficient capital
Insufficiency of capital is another general
characteristic of such countries and that is why
they are known as capital poor of low saving &
low investing economies.
The extreme inequalities in the distribution of
income results that majority of the population
is unable to save and the persons at the peak of
the income pyramids are traders and landlords
who have a tendency to invest in the
unproductive channels such as gold, jeweler,
precious stone, luxurious cars etc.
7.Uncontrolled
The demographicgrowth ofsize,
conditions, population
age structure
and growth of population though vary in
underdeveloped countries, there is a common
feature of rapidly increasing population in all the
countries which adds substantial number to the
total population every year.
As a matter of fact, these countries have high
growth of population followed by high birth rate
and comparatively high but declining death rate.
A larger portion of population, caused by high
birth rate belongs to younger age-groups.
The population of under 15 years of age is about 40%
in developing nations, as compared with only 20 to 25
% in rich countries.
More over, 90% of the total dependents are children
in LDCs as against only 66% in developed economies.
8. Under-utilization of natural
resources
The natural resources in an underdeveloped
economy are either unutilized or under
utilized.
Generally speaking, underdeveloped countries
are not deficient in land, water, minerals, forest
or power resources though they be
unexploited.
The main problem in their case is that such
resources are have not been fully and properly
utilized due to various difficulties, such as their
inaccessibility, shortage of capital, primitive
techniques, and the small size of the market.
9. Technical backwardness
Underdeveloped countries are backward in the
level & character of economic performance
compared with advanced countries of the
world.
Such countries are not using the best
techniques of production available in other
countries which are economically better off.
The level of technique in agriculture is
exceedingly low with limited tools and
equipments which are mostly of a primitive
nature.
The level of technology in the industrial field is
also very low which has been mainly responsible
for keeping the productivity per worker much
below the level in other countries.
This technological backwardness is reflected in
high cost of production despite cheap labour in
these countries.
Economic backwardness
Most of the people in underdeveloped countries
are illiterate and economically backward, ie the
quality of the people as a productive source is low.
The low labor efficiency caused by general
poverty, is reflected in malnutrition diet,
illiteracy, ill health, lack of training and
occupational mobility.
11. Poor consumption pattern
The low level of earnings in the underdeveloped
countries is reflected in their low level of living.
The bulk (nearly 60%) of their income is spent on
necessaries of life (food, house rent etc).
12. Dependence on foreign trade
Most underdeveloped economies are generally foreign
trade oriented.
The recent World bank data reveal that on an average
about 80% exports of the majority of LDCs is primary
goods.
The too much dependence of these countries on
exports of primary goods seriously affects their
economies.
Too much dependence on export of basic products,
neglecting other sectors of the economy has made
these economies largely dependent on imports,
consisting of fuel, manufactured goods, machinery, etc.
The regular decline in their income from foreign
trade has reduced their capacity of imports, with
the result that most of these developing nations
have been facing the difficulty of unfavorable
balance of trade and their liabilities in the form of
foreign loans has excessively increased during the
last couple of decades.
14.Unemployment and under employment
Underdeveloped countries are also characterized
by the vast open unemployment and under
employment, particularly in the countryside.
There is a tendency of migration amongst rural
people from villages to the cities.
The growing flow of jobless persons has not been
absorbed in the industrial sector.
15. Inadequate infrastructure
The underdeveloped countries are also
characterized by the lack of sufficient economic
and social overheads.
The means of transport and communication,
irrigation and power, the banking system, the
educational and medical facilities are all
imperfectly developed and they are completely
inadequate to serve the existing population.
Chapter three
Resources & Economic development
Introduction
The word resources may be defined as “ a means
of attaining given ends”.
These ends may be the satisfaction of individual
wants or the attainment of social objectives.
Thus, anything useful may be termed as a
resource.
Food, clothing, property or capital are , therefore,
resources only because they are useful and satisfy
some human wants.
But resources include many more things.
They include not only material things like land,
forests, coal, machinery etc, but also intangible
things like good health, knowledge, freedom,
social harmony, etc, because all these things have
the attribute of utility.
Similarly, water, air, sunshine etc are all
resources.
Need for resource consciousness
Resources are the basis of economic prosperity of various
nations.
Different countries are at different levels of economic
development primarily because of their resources.
The USA & the west European countries are economically
prosperous because they posses vast resources- natural,
human & cultural
On the other hand, in most parts of Africa & Asia, though
nature has been quite generous to people, due to their lack
of knowledge and initiative, have been unable to turn the
huge mass of resources to economic development.
The vast forest resources, mineral wealth, water
power potential, etc still lie unutilized and are
therefore, not used in the service of man.
Whenever man has become conscious of resources
and has begun to exploit them in a planned and
rational manner he has achieved high levels of
economic prosperity.
A resource conscious man is always trying to find new
uses of various things and thus increases the fund/
subsidize of his resources.
As resource is something functional, a better and
more efficient utilization of things results in the
expansion of total fund of resources.
Meaning of natural resources
In the broad sense, the term “Natural Resources”
refers to geographical location, topography (i. e
surface features), lands & soils, minerals, climate
& rainfall, water, fisheries, forests, wild animals,
etc which are provided by nature.
In short, natural resource means all those
resources or things which are provided by nature
as free gifts.
In this sense, the term includes the known
resources (i.e the resources already discovered
and known) and the unknown or hidden
resources (i.e the resources which are hidden and
yet to be discovered).
But, in economics, the term “natural resources”
generally means only the known resources of
nature.
Kinds of natural resources
 Natural resources are of two kinds.
 They are:
1. Renewable inexhaustible/infinite resources and
2. Non- renewable or exhaustible resources
Renewable resources refer to those natural
resources which can be renewed (i.e can be
obtained & used again & again)
Examples of renewable resources are lands,
water, fisheries forests, etc.
Non-renewable resources refer to those
resources which can not be renewed (i.e can
not be obtained and used again & again)
Example Mineral deposits.
Importance of natural resources
Natural resources play a very important role in the
economic development of a country.
Natural resources help the economic development of
a country in many ways. They are:
1. Favorable geographical location, one of the
important natural resources, contributes to
the agricultural, industrial and commercial
development of a country.
2. Topography or surface features, such as the
mountains, plains, coastlines etc, which are
also natural resources, contribute to the
economic development of a country.
3. Land, which is one of the natural resources,
contribute to the economic development of a
country by providing grounds for human
settlement, agriculture, industries and all
other human activities.
4. Fertile soil, one of the valuable gifts of nature,
contributes to the economic development of a
country by encouraging agriculture.
5. Mineral resources contribute to the industrial
development of a country by providing raw
materials & fuels for industries.
6. Water resources contribute to the economic
development of a country by providing
navigational facilities and by supplying water
for irrigation, hydro-electricity and industrial
and domestic purposes.
8. Fisheries contribute to the economic development of
a country by providing nutritious food for man.
9. Wind, one of the gifts of nature, can be used for
power.
10. Forest
The natural resource base of Ethiopia
Over 85 percent of Ethiopia’s population, estimated at 64
million people, live in rural areas and depend on natural
resources (land, water, forests and trees) for economic
development, food security and other basic necessities.
The country’s population is estimated to reach 130 million
by 2030.
This has a serious implication on the sustainability of the
natural resources base and the efforts to attain national
food security given that nearly half of the current
population is classified as undernourished.
The natural resources base is coming under increasing
population pressure and inappropriate farming and
management practices.
Small-scale farmers, who depend on these resources,
face serious threats from intensive cultivation,
overgrazing and deforestation.
There is a widespread problem of soil erosion and soil
fertility decline, fuelwood crisis, water scarcity,
shortage of pasture resulting in the poverty, food
insecurity and natural resources degradation trap.
This problem is most acute in the Ethiopian highlands
(where over 85 percent of the country’s population
lives), which is affected by recurrent drought and
famine affecting millions of people.
Approximately 66 percent of the total land
area of 112 million hectares is potentially
suitable for agriculture.
Only 14 percent is currently under cultivation
and the largest use of the land (over 50
percent) is for livestock grazing.
Securing food and a livelihood is inextricably
linked to the exploitation of land and natural
resources in rural Ethiopia and soil degradation
is a widespread problem.
Soil
Soil erosion is the most visible form of land
degradation affecting nearly half of the
agricultural land and resulting in soil loss of 1.5 to
2 billion tonnes annually, equivalent to 35 tonnes
per hectares and monetary value of US$1 to 2
billion per year (Ethiopian Soil Science Society,
1998; Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study
(EHRS) 1985, Hurni, 1992; NFIA, 1998,
UNEP/GRID).
Similarly, a recent study has highlighted the
catastrophic impact of soil erosion, estimated at
US$1 billion per year, on the country’s economy,
requiring urgent steps to arrest it (Sonneveld,
2002).
Many studies attribute water erosion, particularly on
cropland, as a major cause for such a high level of soil
erosion in Ethiopia (Hurni, 1988; Shiferaw and Holden,
1999; Sonneveld, 2003) while others have pointed out
that the significant role of livestock (overgrazing) in
fueling the soil degradation process is a cause, since it
is integrated into a smallholder farming system
(Dejene, 1990; Stroosnijder, 1996).
Soil loss in Ethiopia ranges from very low level in
grassland and lowland to a very high level of 100 200
tonnes per hectare per year in the highlands (Hurni,
1993, Herwig and Stillhardt, 1999; NFIA 1998).
The Ethiopian highlands are the centre of the
economic activity of the country with over 85
percent of the country’s population and 75
percent of livestock and they are the source of
many of the country’s major rivers (including
the Blue Nile).
These highlands occupy approximately 45
percent of the total land area of which 50
percent is significantly eroded, 25 percent
seriously eroded and 5 percent has lost the
ability to produce food.
Only 20 percent of the highlands are estimated to have
a minor problem of erosion (EHRS, 1985).
The loss of soil depth is estimated around 4 mm per
year, outstripping the rate of soil formation estimated
at no more than 0.25 mm per year in Africa.
The effective soil depth in Ethiopia is estimated
anywhere between 20 to 59 cm (depending on the
area), and if such a loss of soil depth continues
unabated, Ethiopia could lose nearly all of its top soil
in about 100 to 150 years (FAO, 1998 and Sonneveld,
2002).
This long-term affect of soil loss (unless effectively
controlled) on the ecological balance and survival of a
society is often not captured by cost estimates of soil
erosion based only on production value for certain
years.
Ethiopian soils are fertile, but are undergoing
severe mining of nutrients due to intensive
pressure on arable land in past decades.
A recent study, on the two important plant
growth-limiting nutrients - Nitrogen (N) and
Phosphorus (P) - shows that acid soils dominate
most of the southern and southwestern parts of
the country and generally have low P content.
Forest
Ethiopia’s remaining forest reserves are estimated
at fewer than 3 percent (National Conservation
Strategy, 1990; Environmental Protection
Authority, 1997).
Forest land is widely used for cultivation, grazing,
fuelwood and construction except those
designated by the Government as National
Forestry Priority Areas (58 of them).
Woodlands estimated at 5 million ha and
bushlands totalling 20 million ha are found in
the moist western part of Ethiopia and in the
pastoral and the agropastoral zones of the
lowlands.
Large parts of these woodlands are
increasingly threatened by shifting cultivation,
growth of livestock, expansion of agriculture,
and an increasing demand for fuelwood and
construction by the urban sector (Ethiopian
Forestry Action Plan, 1994).
There is an estimated 200 000 ha of plantation of
which 135 000 ha of industrial and peri-urban
plantation is established and operated by the
Government; 20 000 ha of community woodlots and 50
000 ha of catchments and protection plantation.
Approximately 150 000 to 200 000 hectares of forest
are lost each year mainly for the expansion of rainfed
agriculture and also for fuelwood and through
overgrazing (Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan, 1994;
Environmental Protection Authority, 1997).
If these trends continue by 2010 there will be little
natural forest left except for minor stands in the
remote parts of the country (Ethiopian Forestry Action
Plan, 1994).
Biomass fuel provides close to 95 percent of the total
energy supply of the country, 77 percent being derived
from woody biomass, 9 percent crop residue and 8
percent from dung (MoA, 2000).
Only 4 percent of the population is connected to an
electric grid mostly concentrated in urban areas.
In the year 2000, the demand for fuelwood to meet
basic household needs exceeded the projected supply
by four times: the estimated demand was at 58 million
cubic metres while supply was 11 million cubic metres
(MoNRDEP, 1994).
As a result, crop residue and dung are increasingly
being used to meet rural household energy needs.
The diversion of these important traditional forms of
replacing nutrients in the soil is estimated to reduce
agricultural productivity by 10 percent to 20 percent
below its potential (Suthcliffe, 1993; Wood, 1990).
Deforestation also increases surface run-off and
reduces infiltration and water storage in the soils for
human use for a more extended period.
It often leads to flooding which is damaging to
irrigation schemes.
Deforestation is also associated with the loss of
flora and fauna and loss of biological diversity.
Thus, arresting deforestation and enhancing the
source of rural energy (particularly for cooking
and lighting) is vital to addressing food security,
rural poverty and natural resources management
(NRM).
Water resource
Ethiopia has a vast water resource potential and
the Ethiopian highlands are the source of many of
the international rivers (such as the Blue Nile and
Wabe Shebile) draining into the neighbouring
countries.
Yet only 1 percent of the estimated annual surface
water of 110 billion cubic metres is used for
irrigation and hydropower.
It also has groundwater resources estimated at 2.6
billion cubic metres and many springs and small
streams that can be used for water harvesting
during the rainy seasons.
The country’s irrigation potential is estimated at 3-
4 million hectares (excluding water harvesting and
underground water) but only 160 000 hectares are
currently under irrigation (EPA, 1997).
Livestock
With 35 million tropical livestock units (TLU)
(equivalent of close to 80 million herd), Ethiopia has
one of the largest livestock populations in Africa.
This consists of 30 million cattle and over 42 million
heads of sheep and goats, 7 million equines and over 53
million chickens.
Cattle provide traction power for 95 percent of grain
production and also provide milk, meat, manure, cash
income and serve as a hedge in times of drought and
risks.
The livestock sub-sector accounts for 15 percent of the
total GDP and 33 percent of agricultural output
(without including draft power and manure) (MoA,
1997; CSE, 1997).
Livestock is also an integral part of the farming
system and has major economic and social
functions in the rural sector.
The livestock sector, however, faces very low
productivity.
The major constraints are the serious shortage
of feed and widespread diseases (MoA; 1997;
Mengistu, 2001).
The increasing livestock density and the
associated overgrazing on both arable and
grazing lands have serious impact on the land
and vegetative cover.
Over 80 percent of the livestock are in the
highly degraded and vulnerable Ethiopian
highlands
Flora and fauna
Ethiopia has an important place in its richness and
diversity of its flora and fauna and endemic plants
(Twelde Berhane, 1991).
It is an important centre for crop genetic diversity
since it is the sole or the most significant source of
genetic diversity for some crops such as arabica coffee,
teff, ensete, noug, and Ethiopian rape.
It is also the main centre for sorghum, finger millet,
field pea, chick pea, perennial cotton and sesame (EPA,
1994).
The disappearance of a genetic pool and the diversity
of known plants and species have been accelerating in
the past decades and an effort to protect this erosion
diversity at farm and community level is needed (Ejigu,
1999).
Measures taken by the gov’t
Soil conservation
Soil Conservation
There was no government policy on soil conservation
or natural resources management in ethiopia prior to
1974.
The 1974-1975 famine was the turning point in
ethiopian history in terms of establishing a linkage
between degradation of natural resources and famine.
There was a more direct linkage in the public eye
between highly degraded land and those afflicted by
drought and famine in the ethiopian highlands.
In 1978, a highly publicized article, which circulated in
Addis Ababa, pointed out that about one billion tonnes of
top soils were being lost every year in the faminestricken
Ethiopian highlands (Brown & Wolf, 1978).
This, and a similar effort by others, raised awareness of the
threat of soil erosion to the viability of smallholder
agriculture.
In 1981, the Ministry of Agriculture and the University
of Bern (with the support of the Swiss Government)
initiated the Soil Conservation Research Project
(SCRP), which generated one of the first systematic
data sets on the magnitude and the severity of erosion.
In 1983, the Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study
(EHRS) was carried out by national and international
experts, which reviewed the main reasons for drought
and proposed for Conservation Based Strategy to
address it (Constable et al, 1985).
This approach has focused on a) soil and water
conservation; b) construction of terraces, check dams,
cut-off drains and micro-basins, and c) afforestation
and revegetation of fragile and hillside areas.
The focus was on building physical structures to
control soil erosion and to rehabilitate degraded lands
and massive efforts were undertaken in this regard.
This effort has resulted in many ecological benefits
such as restoring farmlands, increasing soil depth,
water holding capacity and improved woodlot and
pastureland
EPRDF established the Environmental Protection
Authority (EPA) in 1994 as the main policy formation
body related to environment and natural resources
management.
The EPA carried out the task started under the
previous Government in the finalization of the
Conservation Strategy for Ethiopia, which was
approved at the Federal level in 1997 consisting of
sectoral and cross-sectoral policy guidelines and
strategies in the management of Ethiopia’s natural
resources (EPA, volume 1, 1997).
Soil fertility management requires a broader framework
to attain its objectives.
Yet, the Government’s National Extension Package
programme (derived from the SG-2000 intensified
package approach) with emphasis on increasing yields,
has not been as flexible in responding to the various
agro-ecological zones, local resource endowment and
farmers’ capacity to invest in affordable soil fertility
management techniques.
The packages are designed by research-extension
experts with little or no serious effort made to
integrate environmental sustainability issues (crop
and plant biodiversity) as well as indigenous
knowledge and practices and crop and plant diversity
at community level (Beshah, 1999).
The package approach seems to have overplayed the
production aspect through making investment on
external inputs, which is out of reach of the vast
number of resource-poor farmers who have no
capacity to invest in this package.
FOREST AND TREE MANAGEMENT AND
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF RURAL ENERGY

Recognizing that forest utilization far exceeds their

replenishment in rural communities and that its
management is closely linked to land conservation,
soil fertility, water recharge, biodiversity, food
security and livelihood issues, the 1997 Conservation
Strategy of Ethiopia includes some basic tenets that
try to address these problems.
The CSA guidelines on forest, woodlands and tree
management specifically mention that:
i) forest development and projects are to be executed
primarily by individuals and communities and the
Government’s role is the provision of technical support
(extension and research) and enabling policies (such as
pricing policy and increased security of land and tree
tenure);
ii) forest development strategy should integrate the
development, management and conservation of forest
resources with those of land and water resources, energy
resources, ecosystems and genetic resources as well as crop
and livestock production;
iii) efforts should be made to achieve the principle of
“Sustainable Forest Management” where the volume of
wood harvested is about equal to the net growth that
forest is capable of generating in a socially acceptable and
economically viable way (CSE, 1997, Volume 2).
Renewable energy sources, particularly in the form of
biomass energy, are untapped in Ethiopia.
The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia makes very
brief reference to the need for development of
alternative energy sources namely, solar, wind, biogas,
agricultural biofuel for small towns and villages (CSE,
volume 2, 1997).
The most crucial and immediate steps to address the
depletion of forest resources that have an impact on
other resources and sectors is on the supply side.
Here increasing the production of forest products for
fuel wood, timber, fodder and construction material is
vital.
The most promising vehicle to achieve this will be
through individual tree planting by smallholders and
agroforestry devolvement.
This would also bring added benefits to mitigating
land degradation (through the increased of vegetative
cover) and to reducing the high cost incurred in the
loss of crop productivity by the conversion of dung and
crop residue for energy needs.
Community forestry, if managed in a participatory
manner, has the potential to contribute meaningfully
to increase forest products and meet the needs of
rural households.
In the 1980s the previous military Government
introduced community forestry to meet the fuelwood
and construction needs of rural households.
Renewable energy sources, particularly in the form of
biomass energy, are untapped in Ethiopia. The
Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia makes very brief
reference to the need for development of alternative
energy sources namely, solar, wind, biogas,
agricultural biofuel for small towns and villages (CSE,
volume 2, 1997).
LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT AND GRAZING LAND
MANAGEMENT
There was no specific policy regarding livestock density
or managing grazing land, until the guidelines that
resulted after the Fourth Livestock Development
Project in 1993-1994 and the Conservation Strategy of
Ethiopia in 1997.
Livestock and overgrazing have adverse impact on soil
degradation, compaction and reduction on vegetative
and biomass cover.
It is certain that a policy limiting the number of
livestock would not be popular or difficult to
implement since they are the most significant means
of capital accumulation and quickly disposable assets
in time of famine and other emergencies (Rahmato,
1987; McCann, 1987).
Even farmers indicating serious land shortage did not
like their livestock size to be reduced (Dejene, 1990).
One of the most notable Government strategies
regarding livestock improvement is the National
Livestock Development Programme (NLDP) which
consolidates and expands (with appropriate
modification) the results obtained from the Fourth
Livestock Development Project, particularly in the
area of forage and seed production that are suitable to
local conditions (NLDP, 1997).
The NLDP has come up with modified forage
development strategies for different agro-ecological
zones and farming systems that could also be used by
other development agencies involved in natural
resources management activities (NLDP, 1997).
One of the major constraints in Ethiopia is operationalizing
and translating policies enunciated at the Federal level into
action at the local and community levels, particularly in the
areas of natural resources management.
This is due to the lack of strong grassroots/ community
organization that are established by local people and serving
their interest.
Community-based organizations would play a central role
not only in participation but also most importantly in the
empowerment of local people as a stakeholder and in
providing greater incentive to manage and utilize their
natural resources in a sustainable way.
The key principle here is that community-based and
grassroots institutions must represent and protect local
interest.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the
Earth, with its diverse and abundant life forms,
including over six billion humans, is facing a
serious water crisis.
All the signs suggest that it is getting worse and
will continue to do so, unless corrective action is
taken.
This crisis is one of water governance, essentially
caused by the ways in which we mismanage water.
But the real disaster is the effect it has on the
everyday lives of poor people, who are ruined by the
burden of water-related disease, living in degraded
and often dangerous environments, struggling to get
an education for their children and to earn a living,
and to get enough to eat.
The crisis is experienced also by the natural
environment, which is groaning/crying out under
the mountain of wastes dumped onto it daily, and
from overuse and misuse, with seemingly little care
for the future consequences and future generations.
In truth it is attitude and behaviour problems that lie
at the heart of the crisis.
We know most (but not all) of what the problems are
and a good deal about where they are.
The scale of the water problem
Consider the following:
The 2006 United Nations Human Development Report,
notes the following:
Some 1.1 billion people in developing countries have
inadequate access to water
2.6 billion people lack basic sanitation
Lack of water is closely related to poverty:
 Almost two in three people lacking access to clean water survive
on less than $2 a day, with one in three living on less than $1 a day
 More than 660 million people without sanitation live on less than
$2 a day, and more than 385 million on less than $1 a day.
Some 1.8 million children die each year as a result
of diarrhea
Lack of water means lost school time for many
children.
443 million school days are lost each year from
water-related illness
Access to piped water into the household
averages about 85% for the wealthiest 20% of the
population, compared with 25% for the poorest
20%.
Image: Problems for Children
1.8 billion people who have access to a water
source within 1 kilometer, but not in their
house or yard, consume around 20 liters per
day.
In the United Kingdom the average person
uses more than 50 liters of water a day
flushing toilets (where average daily water
usage is about 150 liters a day.
The highest average water use in the world is
in the US, at 600 liters day.)
Close to half of all people in developing countries
suffer at any given time from a health problem
caused by water and sanitation deficits
Lack of water means
women spend many hours collecting water every day,
sometimes from many miles away.
Millions of women spending several hours a day
collecting water
To these human costs can be added the massive
economic waste associated with the water and
sanitation deficit.…
The costs associated with health spending,
productivity losses and labour diversions … are
greatest in some of the poorest countries.
Sub-Saharan Africa looses about 5% of GDP, or
some $28.4 billion annually, a figure that exceeds
total aid flows and debt relief to the region in
2003.
Image: Problems for Women
400 million children (1 in 5 from the developing
world) have no access to safe water.
1.4 million children will die each year from lack of
access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation
(State of the World’s Children, 2005, UNICEF)
Water Challenges to Life
and Well-Being
Challenge 1
Basic Needs and the Right to Health
Water-related diseases are among the most
common causes of illness and death,
affecting mainly the poor in developing
countries.
Water-borne diseases causing gastro-
intestinal illness (including diarrhoea) are
caused by drinking contaminated water;
In 2000, the estimated mortality rate due to water
sanitation hygiene-associated diarrhoeas and some
other water/sanitationassociated diseases
(schistosomiasis, trachoma, intestinal helminth
infections) was 2,213,000USD.
There were an estimated 1 million deaths due
to malaria.
Worldwide, over 2 billion people were
infected with schistosomes and soil-
transmitted helminthes, of whom 300 million
suffered serious illness.
The majority of those affected by water-
related mortality and morbidity are children
under five.
The tragedy is that this disease burden is
largely preventable.
Challenge 2

Protecting Ecosystems for People

and Planet
Water is an essential part of any ecosystem, both in
quantitative and qualitative terms, and reduced water
quantity and quality both have serious negative
impacts on ecosystems.
The environment has a natural absorptive, self-
cleaning capacity
However, if this is go beyond, biodiversity is lost,
livelihoods are affected, natural food sources (e.g.
fish) are damaged and high clean-up costs result.
Environmental damage is leading to increased
natural disasters, with floods increasing where
deforestation and soil erosion are preventing
natural water attenuation/decrease.
Challenge 3

Cities: Competing Needs in an

Urban Environment
Presently 48 percent of the world’s population lives
in towns and cities; by 2030 this will rise to about 60
percent.
Urban areas, generally, provide the economic
resources to set up water supply and sanitation, but
they also concentrate wastes.
Where good waste management is lacking, urban
areas are among the world’s most life-threatening
environments.
Good city water management is complex.
It requires the integrated management of water supplies
for domestic and industrial needs, the control of
pollution and the treatment
Challenge 4

Securing Food for a Growing World Population

The main source of the world’s food supply is agriculture,
which includes crops, livestock, aquaculture and forestry.
Unmanaged earth systems can feed some 500 million
people, so systematic agriculture is needed for the current
world population of 6 billion.
In addition, at the local level, agriculture is the mainstay
of many rural economies.
Providing the 2,800 calories per person per day needed for
adequate nourishment requires an average of 1,000 cubic
metres (m3) of water.
An important source of irrigation water is
wastewater, with some 10 percent of total irrigated
land in developing countries using this resource.
It provides direct benefits to farmers who are short of
water,
Irrigation development costs range typically
between US$1,000 and US$10,000 per hectare.
Future total annual investment costs worldwide
are estimated at US$25- 30 billion, including
expansion of irrigated areas, rehabilitation and
modernization of existing systems, and provision
of extra water storage.
There is a strong positive link between investment in
irrigation, poverty alleviation and food security.
Water: A Human Right or a
Commodity?
The fundamental question is whether water is a
fundamental human right, or a commodity; a
privileged service that you can only access if you
can afford it.
Article 25 of the United Nations Declaration of
Human Rights—the premier human rights
doctrine that practically all nations have signed
up to—notes the following:
“Everyone has the right to a standard of living
adequate for the health and well-being of himself
and of his family, including food, clothing,
housing and medical care and necessary social
services, and the right to security in the event of ...
circumstances beyond his control.”
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United
Nations, December 10, 1948
While water is not mentioned explicitly, the right
to food includes water as well, because water is
essential for humans to live, and is therefore in line
with the principles of the declaration.
Thus, water is a human right issue.
Water and Environmental Issues
We use water for a variety of purposes from
agricultural, domestic and industrial uses.
In May 2010, the UN produced the 3rd Global
Biodiversity Outlook report.
In it, the report notes that “shallow-water
wetlands such as marshes, swamps and shallow
lakes have declined significantly in many parts of
the world.”
The report also notes that water quality in freshwater
ecosystems is an important biodiversity indicator, yet
global data is quite lacking.
But there are numerous examples that are known.
Quoting a number of examples from the report,
Between 56% and 65% of inland water systems
suitable for use in intensive agriculture in Europe
and North America had been drained by 1985.
The respective figures for Asia and South America
were 27% and 6%.
73% of marshes in northern Greece have been
drained since 1930.
60% of the original wetland area of Spain has
been lost.
More than 40% of the global river discharge is
now cut off by large dams and one-third of
sediment destined for the coastal zones no longer
arrives.
These large-scale disruptions have had a major
impact on fish migration, freshwater biodiversity
more generally and the services it provides.
They also have a significant influence on
biodiversity in earthly, coastal and marine
ecosystems.
Climate Change
Climate change and
is going Water
to increase Security
water insecurity:
Recent estimates suggest that climate change will account
for about 20 percent of the increase in global water scarcity.
Marked reductions in water availability in East Africa, the
Sahel and Southern Africa as rainfall declines and
temperature rises, with large productivity losses in basic
food staples.
Projections for rainfed areas in East Africa point to potential
productivity losses of up to 33% in maize and more than
20% for sorghum and 18% for millet.
Future wars
For a number over water?
of years now, we have heard of predictions
that future wars will be fought over control of essential
resources, such as water.
To some extent, most wars have already been about that.
However, in terms of water itself, some experts question
this prediction.
Inter Press Service (IPS) notes a number of experts
disagree with the view that future wars will be over water,
and instead feel it is mismanagement of water resources
which is the issue, not scarcity (which is the underlying
assumption for the prediction of such wars.)
That same IPS article quotes Arunabha Ghosh,
co-author of the United Nations Human
Development Report 2006 themed on water
management who says, “Water wars make
good newspaper headlines but cooperation
(agreements) don’t.… there are plenty of
bilateral, multilateral and trans-boundary
agreements for water-sharing—all or most of
which do not make good newspaper copy.”
Others have noted that there are many more examples of
cooperation than conflict in regions with shard water
interests.
The Stockholm International Water Institute express its
opinion that “10- to 20-year-old arguments about conflict
over water are still being recycled.”
At the same time there have been various incidents that
fuel the fear of water-related wars,
 such as Israel’s recent bombing of the Lebanese water pipelines
from the Litani River to farmland along the coastal plain and parts
of the Bekaa Valley, and
 the conflict in Sri Lanka where the rebel group diverted a canal.
The

Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) 
In the last decade efforts towards cooperation on the
Nile have intensified and, in 1993, the Technical
Cooperation Committee for the Promotion of the
Development and Environmental Protection of the
Nile Basin (TECCONILE) was established with the
aim of promoting a development agenda.
In 1998, all the riparian/along river bank states except
Eritrea, began discussions with a view to creating a
regional partnership to better manage the Nile.
A transitional mechanism for cooperation was officially
launched in February 1999 in Dar-es-Salaam by the Council
of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin States (Nile-
COM).
The process was officially named the Nile Basin Initiative
(NBI) later in the same year, and in November 2002 a
secretariat was established in Entebbe, Uganda, with
funding from the World Bank.
Burundi, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya and Rwanda are
all involved in the NBI, with Eritrea participating as an
observer.
According to Antoine Sendama, one of the Nile Basin
Initiative's regional coordinators, the 10 countries which
share the Nile and its sources met to find a way of
cooperating on using the Nile "sustainably and effectively
towards development".
Most countries in the region, according to Sendama, share
a similar history of poverty, high population growth,
environmental degradation, unstable economies and
insecurity.
"We need to utilise the existing opportunities to have a
cooperation where actors will have a win-win gain towards
development," he told IRIN recently.
Ordinary people ignored
However, critics of the NBI have argued that the initiative
has been a closed affair in which only the states involved
and the World Bank have had input into decision making,
largely ignoring the voices of ordinary people whose
livelihoods depend on use of the Nile basin's resources.
"It has been clear to some of us that decisions made by
government are implemented without the actual
consultation with the people who live in the Nile Basin,"
Howard said.
 Global Context of WASH
What is WASH?

WA - Water
S - Sanitation
H - Hygiene
 WHY It is a big Concern?
1.1 Billion People live without clean, safe and adequate
Water.
In Ethiopia, more than 46.2 million people do not have
access to safe and adequate water supply
A third of the world (> 2.4 billion people) live without a
clean and private place to defecate and urinate.
In Ethiopia, more than 57.4 million people do not have
proper human waste disposal (88% of rural and 25%
urban)
Less than 1% and only about 5% of gov’t spending goes to
low-cost Water and Sanitation in developing and rich
countries respectively
 Why Big Issue……..???
In average a person defecate 300 – 500gr of faeces
per day
A gram of human faeces contain;
10 million viruses
1 million bacteria
12,000 infectious parasites
100 eggs of stomach worms
Eg 1722,000,000,000eggs of Stomach worms
As a Result;
1.8 million people (90% are children <5) die every
year from diarrhoeal diseases (250,000 in Ethiopia)
500million people are at risk from trachoma
(146million leads to blindness)
1.2million people die of malaria each year (90% are
children <5)
More than 133million people suffer from intestinal
helminthes infections.
 As studies shows;
 Improved sanitation reduces diarrhoeal diseases by >37%
 Improved water supply reduces diarrhoeal diseases
by>25%
 Both together reduces by more than 57%
 Proper hand washing with soap reduces diarrhoeal risk by
>47%
“once we can secure access to clean Water and adequate
Sanitation facilities for all people, irrespective of the
difference in their living conditions, a huge battle against
all kind of diseases will be won.” (WHO)
Barriers to transmission:
Handwashing, sanitation
Sanitation
Ethiopia has had one of the lowest rates of sanitation in
the world
Poor sanitation is the cause of numerous cases of disease
and death
Sanitation protects health and environment
Yet there are in some areas of rapid progress in sanitation
coverage
What is sanitation?
1. Excreta management (faeces, urine)
2. Greywater management
3. Solid waste management
4. Drainage (for rainwater / stormwater)
Effects of poor sanitation
Child defecating in a canal in the slum of Gege in the city
of Ibadan, Nigeria (Photo: Adebayo Alao, Sept. 2007)
This piece of intestine, blocked by worms, was surgically removed from a 3-year-old
boy at Red Cross Children’s Hospital.
The child survived, but no child should be subjected to such an easily preventable
condition. Photo: Allen Jefthas
Source: MRC POLICY BRIEF – No. 2, APRIL 2006: Worms in SA’s children (Medical
Research Council, South Africa)
Purpose: To discuss some concepts
related to food security, & to assess
how biophysical
environment influence/enhances
food security at various scale
Basic concepts on food security
 Famine scourge/curse is as old as human history on
the planet earth (The earlier recorded famine hit
Egypt 4000BC).
Among the widely cited famines were those
happened in:
1. UK (1315-1317)
2. Scotland (1615-1625)
3. Germany ((1772)
4. Sweden (1799)
5. China (1958- 1961)
6. India ( 1943)
7. Bangladesh (1974)
8. Sudan (1984-1985)
9. Ethiopia (1889-1892), (1972-1974), (1984-1987)
What is food security?
FS is initially coined in the earily1970s
The one adopted by the First World Food Summit is 1996
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have
physical & economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs & food
preference for an active & healthy life.
Sufficiency of food is explained mainly as calories needed
for an active & healthy life.
Access to food is an entitlement to produce, purchase or
exchange food or receive it as a gift.
Food security for a household means access by all
members at all times to enough food for an active,
healthy life.
A household is considered food-secure when its
occupants do not live in hunger or fear of
starvation.
Food security includes at a minimum
(1) the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and
safe foods, and
(2) an assured ability to acquire acceptable foods in
socially acceptable ways (that is, without resorting to
emergency food supplies, scavenging, stealing, or other
coping strategies). (USDA)
Food insecurity
Food insecurity can be categorized as either
chronic/constant or transitory/temporary.
Chronic food insecurity translates into a high
degree of vulnerability to famine and hunger;
ensuring food security presupposes elimination of
that vulnerability.
[Chronic] hunger is not famine.
It is similar to undernourishment and is related to
poverty, existing mainly in poor countries."
In 2006, reports showed d that globally, the number
of people who are overweight has surpassed the
number who are undernourished - the world had
more than one billion people who were overweight,
and an estimated 800 million who were
undernourished.
Stunting/dangerous and chronic
nutritional deficiencies
Food security & Environmental Linkage
Food security, environmental security and social
security are inextricably linked, and equally
important.
Environmental security is state in which an
ecosystem is able to support the healthy pursuits
of livelihoods by the people living in the system.
It entails the rational & sustainable use of natural
resources &safe disposal of wastes, as well as
protection from pollution & abuse and the
conservation of biological diversity.
Some environmental conditions are “naturally” insecure
due to innate/inborn biophysical characteristics (eg acidic
soil)
Many others are insecure as a result of human activity (eg
over exploited soil, over fished ponds etc)
Natural & human induced causes interact (eg Natural
flooding is accelerated by deforestation)
Social Security
Refers to the combination of economic, political &
personal security and social equity (Westing, 1991)
SS encompasses assured access to basic livelihood needs
as well as respect of human rights and protection from
abuse and conflict (Engo, 1993)
 Linkage
Positive linkage
 Improving environmental security contributes to
improved productivity and food security which helps
increase social security and can alleviate conflict.
 Better food security leads to environmental security
Negative linkage
 Environmental degradation, food insecurity and socio-
economic decline are interrelated.
 Overexploitation, pollution & depletion of resource
undermine productive capacities, which leads to
declining yields in agriculture and fisheries, & to high
socio-economic costs.
 Such conditions contribute to food insecurity and
hardship, which then induce political conflict.
Global Picture
 More than 800 million people live under
chronic food insecurity.
 About 170 million children are malnourished.
 Main explanations for food insecurity at global
level includes:
1. Uneven distribution of resources
2. Difference in opportunities & constraints
3. Natural & manmade calamities
4. Power imbalance
Sub-Saharan African situation
The only region where the food insecure population
has shown an upward spiral between the 1970s &
1990s.
A region with the highest incidence of food
insecurity.
One out of three people in Sub-Saharan Africa are
chronically food insecure (IFPRI,2001)
 Ethiopian Picture

 Four among ten Ethiopians suffer chronic food

insecurity.
 Experienced some 44 severe famine catastrophes.
Famine in historical perspectives:
1. 1882-1892 (killed one-third of the population)
2. 1958 (Tigray famine)
3. 1968 (Lasta or Wollo famine)
4. 1972-1974 famine ( caused 150,000 deaths)
5. 2002-2003 famine (14.3 million starved)
6. 2009 famine ( 5-13 million starved)
Global initiatives to fight against food insecurity and
famine
First World Conference (1974 Rome)
Adopted the Universal Declaration on the Eradication of
Hunger & Malnutrition.
The declaration proclaims that:
“Every man, woman & child has the
inalienable right to be free from hunger &
malnutrition in order to develop fully & maintain
their physical & mental faculties (UN 1975)
World Food Summit (1996)
Reaffirming the rights of everyone to have access to safe &
nutritious food, consistent with the right to adequate
food, & the fundamental of every one to be free from
hunger.
Two pertinent issues can be drawn:
1. Having access to food has been related to human
rights.
2. The scale emphasized by the summit was “
Individual” rather than “national” & “ Household”
National food security strategy of FDRE (1996)
 Tackling the challenge of food insecurity has
become the priority in Ethiopia’s development
strategy.
 Food security strategy at national level focuses
on three pertinent issues:
1. Examining the dimension of food security.
2. Identifying the principal cause food security &
3. Formulating appropriate strategies as solution
(FDRE, 1996)
 New policy initiatives
 Updating the 1996 food security strategy in March 2002
 Issuing the Sustainable Development & Poverty
Reduction Program (SDPRP) in July 2002
 Set up the New Coalition for Food Security (NCFS),
June 2003
 Plan for Accelerated & Sustainable Development to end
Poverty (PASDEP,2005) focusing on three pillars:
1. Direct food production interventions
2. Productive safety net &
3. Voluntary resettlement
 The role of different actors & networking

Whose responsibility is it to work hard to pull people out

of poverty trap & to make them food secure?
Government: Should put in place enabling & pro-poor
policies & effectively implement them, & highly
committed to fight poverty.
Donor Agencies: Provide technical assistance & drawing
resources
NGOs: Advocate for the poor & directly involve in
development activities
Private sectors: Invest in labor intensive undertakings to
use the opportunity of cheap labor on one hand & creating
many employment opportunity on the other.
Academia: Have the role of providing reliable information
regarding the situation & the dynamics of social realities
The local people: Actively participate politically &
economically, use opportunities for off setting their
constraints.
Good policy is the key to all actions by whatever actor. The
commitment of the government that holds the key at
hand is vital for bringing about sustainable livelihoods &
food security
 •Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate
that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes
in the mean annual temperature and/or the variability of its
properties and that persists for an extended period, typically
decades or longer.
•Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or
external forces, or it may be due to persistent anthropogenic
(due to human activities) changes in the composition of the
atmosphere.
Climate change has been defined as:
“a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly
to human activity that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods” (UNFCCC,
2007:13).
There is now scientific consensus that the global
climate is changing.
Global mean temperature increased by 0.6 0C in the
last century, with the hottest years ever in record
occurring after 1990.
The IPCC, in its 1995 report, projected an increase in
global surface temperature of 1 to 3.5 degrees Celsius
over the next century, which compares with the
observed increase of 0.3 to 0.6 0C over the past 100
years.
This warming of the world climates has been linked
to a higher concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, the consequence of which can be
manifested in the higher frequency of extremes, such
as floods, droughts and cyclones (WHO, 2003:3).
The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) report suggests that the increase in
temperatures over the next century could be between
1.4 and 5.8 0C.
Patterns of precipitation will also change, affecting the
hydrological cycle. Sea levels will rise by 9cm to 88cm,
mainly through the thermal expansion of the ocean.
Sea level is rising and extreme climatic events, such as
floods, droughts, heat waves etc, are becoming
frequent, extensive and intensive.
There is no doubt that nations have become more
vulnerable to extreme climatic events from time to
time (IPCC, 2007).
 But what is causing the world to heat up?
Earth’s climate is the result of complex interaction
between the sun’s radiation and the atmosphere
surrounding the earth, oceans, cry-sphere (e.g. sea ice,
ice sheets), land surface and biosphere.
Earth’s surface absorbs a portion of the sunlight and
reradiates it as long-wave (infrared) radiation.
Some of this infrared radiation is absorbed by
atmospheric green house gasses (GHGs) and
reradiated back to earth, thereby warming the
surface of the earth by more than would be
achieved by incoming solar radiation alone.
The gasses, acting like the glass of a green house,
trap some of the heat of the sun and warm the
earth GHGs are a collection of a thin layer of gasses
covering the earth, basically composed of carbon
dioxide, water vapor, ozone, sulfur hexafluoride,
methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, per
fluorocarbons and hydro fluorocarbons.
FAQ 1.3, Figure 1
The major contributors, amongst the green house
gasses, for the change in climate are:
Carbon dioxide,
Water vapor or Clouds (condensed water)

Methane (CH4),

Nitrous oxide,

Ozone (O3)

and Aerosols (Aerosols are microscopic particles or

droplets in air) .
 Current and Projected Impacts of
Climate Change
 Though, the likely effects of climate change are
diverse and complex, they are summarized in the
following manner:
 The world’s coasts will face increasingly severe
storms and floods, with the inundation of coastal
areas displacing millions of people,
 Salt-water intrusion from rising sea levels will
impact the quality and availability of freshwater,
worsening the world’s growing water crisis,
As warmer conditions alter forests, wetlands and
rangelands, the damage to the Earth’s ecosystem
will be far reaching and irreversible. Some 25 % of
mammals and 12 % of birds could become extinct
over the next few decades,
Shifting agricultural lands and creeping
desertification will leave many areas unfit for
crops or grazing,
Warmer and wetter conditions may accelerate the
spread of new varieties of infectious diseases such
as malaria and yellow fever (UNEP, 2006b).
 Africa is one of the most vulnerable continents to
climate change and climate variability
 A number of countries in Africa already face semi-
arid conditions that make agriculture challenging,
and climate change will be likely to reduce the
length of growing season as well as force large
regions of marginal agriculture out of production.
 Projected reductions in yield in some countries could
be as much as 50% by 2020, and crop net revenues
could fall by as much as 90% by 2100, with small-scale
farmers being the most affected.
 This would adversely affect food security in the
continent (IPCC, 2007).
 Climate change and variability are likely to impose
additional pressures on water availability, water
accessibility and water demand in Africa.
 Even without climate change, several countries in
Africa, particularly in northern Africa, will exceed
the limits of their economically usable land-based
water resources before 2025.
 About 25% of Africa’s population (about 200 million
people) currently experience high water stress.
 The population at risk of increased water stress in
Africa is projected to be between 75-250 million and
350-600 million people by the 2020s and 2050s,
respectively.
 Climate change, interacting with human drivers such as
deforestation and forest fires, are a threat to Africa’s forest
ecosystems.
 Changes in grasslands and marine ecosystems are also
noticeable.
 It is estimated that, by the 2080s, the proportion of arid
and semi-arid lands in Africa is likely to increase by 5-8%.
 Climate change impacts on Africa’s ecosystems will
probably have a negative effect on tourism as,
according to one study, between 25 and 40% of
mammal species in national parks in sub-Saharan
Africa will become endangered.
 It is likely that climate change will alter the ecology of
some disease vectors in Africa, and consequently the
spatial and temporal transmission of such diseases.
 Most assessments of health have concentrated on
malaria and there are still debates on the attribution of
malaria resurgence in some African areas.
 The need exists to examine the vulnerabilities and
impacts of future climate change on other infectious
diseases such as dengue fever, meningitis and cholera,
among others.
 Impacts of Climate Change in Ethiopia.
Impacts on the Ethiopian Weather Condition
One of the direct impacts of global climate
change on Ethiopia is the change in local
weather condition.
Having significant proportion of its population
dependant on agriculture and below poverty
line, even a little alteration in the local weather
condition, would result in unimaginable
repercussions on the biophysical and
socioeconomic environment of the country
(Daniel, 2007:9).
Impacts on Rainfall
It is stated that, averaged nationally, the amount of rainfall
in Ethiopia has been constant for over five decades
(UNFCCC, 2001).
However, there were diverse patterns between different
agro-ecological regions of the country, such as, a declining
trend of rainfall in the northern parts of Ethiopia, an area
corresponding to massive degradation of environmental
resources and disrupted ecological balance.
This area already has environmental problems such as
expansion of aridity, abandonment of farmlands due to
losses in the productivity of lands, enhancement of food
insecurity problems, triggering of environmental refugees
and creation of tension among competing societies for
limited natural resources, etc.
It was also noted that there is a declining trend of rainfall
in the southeast and northeast Ethiopia, locations where
water insecurity exists (Funk et al., 2005).
Impacts on Temperature
Studies show that there has been a general trend of
atmospheric warming in Ethiopia.
Average annual minimum and maximum temperatures have
been increasing at 0.250C and 0.10C per decade, respectively
(UNFCCC, 2001).
In connection with this, another study also reported an
increasing trend of 0.30C per decade for the mean minimum
and maximum temperature in the Ethiopian highlands
(Muna, 2006).
The continuing increase of temperature has
implications especially in the low-lying areas of
the country.
Coupled with the declining rainfall amount in
those parts, the increasing trend of temperature
would exacerbate the existing level of water stress
which in turn leads to the depletion of grazing
lands and desertification.
Impacts on Water Bodies
Abay and Awash Rivers are among the water
bodies upon which assessment has been made.
While the study made on Awash River reveals the
fact that the river is highly sensitive to the climate
change (Kinfe, 1999), runoff in Abay basin is
predicted to decrease up to 33.6% due to climate
change (Deksiyos, 2000).
Such predictions warrant the sustainability of the
hydropower resources of the country since it is
predictable that several small streams would
disappear while bigger rivers are likely to shrink.
Water availability is changing fast in Ethiopia.
Some areas that used to be covered by water have
now become grazing areas due to climate change.
The water level has been seriously depleted and rivers
are now drying up because of metrological droughts
thereby affecting the economy
Impacts on Agriculture
Agriculture is the main pillar of the
Ethiopian economy.
85% of the population is dependant on
the sector in terms of employment and
livelihood.
It also contributes about 50% of the country’s
gross domestic product (GDP); generates about
88% of the export earnings; and supplies around
73% of the raw material requirement of agro-
based domestic industries.
However, the sector, due to many factors, has
failed to bring about the desired effect on the
economic development of the country (MoFED,
2006).
The output of the agricultural sector
is most likely to be affected by the
impacts of climate change, mainly, due
to increased temperature and reduced
rainfall.
The study made at Debrezeit, and Addis Ababa
from Central Ethiopia and Kulumsa from
Southeast, which are considered as major wheat
producing areas in the country indicated that crop
maturity period would decrease (ranging from –
10.6% to-18.5%) under climate change scenarios.
A decrease in maturity period by about 16% at
Debrezeit and 17% at Kulumsa and Addis Ababa
was observed (NMSA, 1996).
Impacts on Biodiversity
Biodiversity in Ethiopia is particularly
high and unique.
However, its gradual degradation has
become a threat.
The genetic diversity of Ethiopia’s unique flora and
fauna are increasingly eroded because of the long
history of disruptive interventions by the state
coupled with increasing population.
Adding to these, the impact of climate change will
make the pace of biodiversity erosion would be
phenomenal (EPA, 1997a).
Impacts on Health
As a result of climate change, the increment in
temperature and an increased amount of rainfall,
diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, cholera,
dysentery and respiratory diseases are expected to be
more pronounced due to climate change (Lindsay
and Martens, 1998:33).
According to reports, the most prevalent illness in
Ethiopia is malaria, followed by diarrhea (MoFED,
2006).
These two diseases are directly related to climate
change. There is a significant increase in the
occurrence of malaria in Africa, particularly in
areas that did not have previous incidences of
malaria, such as the east African highlands
(Githeko and Ndegwa, 2001:54).
Due to climate change impacts, a ratio of 109.4
deaths/ million over the last years was computed
out of which climate change killed over 50,000
people in Ethiopia alone between 2000 and 2006
(Mcmichael et al., 2004:1543).
climate change endangers health in
fundamental ways.
The warming of the planet will be gradual, but the
effects of extreme weather events – more storms,
floods, droughts and heatwaves – will be abrupt and
acutely felt.
Both trends can affect some of the most fundamental
determinants of health: air, water, food, shelter, and
freedom from disease.
WHO has identified five major health consequences of
climate change.
First, the agricultural sector is extremely sensitive
to climate variability.
Rising temperatures and more frequent droughts
and floods can compromise food security.
Increases in malnutrition are expected to be
especially severe in countries where large
populations depend on rain-fed subsistence
farming.
Malnutrition, much of it caused by periodic
droughts, is already responsible for an estimated
3.5 million deaths each year.
Second, more frequent extreme weather events
mean more potential deaths and injuries caused
by storms and floods.
In addition, flooding can be followed by
outbreaks of diseases, such as cholera, especially
when water and sanitation services are damaged
or destroyed.
Storms and floods are already among the most
frequent and deadly forms of natural disasters.
Third, both scarcities of water, which is essential
for hygiene, and excess water due to more
frequent and torrential rainfall will increase the
burden of diarrhoeal disease, which is spread
through contaminated food and water.
Diarrhoeal disease is already the second leading
infectious cause of childhood mortality and
accounts for a total of approximately 1.8 million
deaths each year.
Fourth, heat waves,/effect especially in urban “heat
islands”, can directly increase morbidity and
mortality, mainly in elderly people with
cardiovascular or respiratory disease.
Apart from heat waves, higher temperatures can
increase ground-level ozone and hasten the onset of
the pollen season, contributing to asthma attacks.
Finally, changing temperatures and patterns of
rainfall are expected to alter the geographical
distribution of insect vectors that spread infectious
diseases.
Of these diseases, malaria and dengue are of greatest
public health concern.
Pollution in Beijing, China
Severe Drought
The forecasted future image of the planet earth, New
York City
Flood and Rising sea level, Tuvalu
Melting iceberg under water, Atlantic Ocean
Wildfire Bitterroot national forest Montana, USA
•The problem of corruption has been around a long time
and affected all parts of the world.
•In fact, the problem existed with in ancient Arabic,
Indian, Chinese, and Greek texts.
•During recent decades, however, it has grown both in
terms of geographic extent and intensity.
•Since the mid 1970s, it has penetrated virtually every
country in the world.
•Social science definitions of corruption center around
three types: public-office centered, market-centered or
public-interest centered.
Generally, definitions employed by experts have
been public office centered such as
“the encouragement (as of a political official) by means
of improper consideration (as bribery) to commit a
violation of duty” or “behavior which deviates from the
formal duties of a public role because of private-
regarding (personal, close family, private clique)
financial or status-gains; or violates rules against the
exercise of certain types of private-regarding influence”
A simple definition useful for policy makers is
“the abuse of public power for private gain”, as put
forward by the World Bank.
Corruption is accepting or asking for a bribe for
the performance or non-performance of an action
associated with his or her office.
Bribery, in the form of “facilitation” payments,
reward, expensive gifts, etc. are at the center of
“luxurious corruption” that may involve the
privatization of large state assets, massive
procurement contracts and the like to “petty
corruption” that involves routine speed money,
small bribes, etc.
Corruption is the behavior of persons or
representatives of the public sector that deviates
from their official responsibilities and takes
advantage of their power for private aims and
enrichment.
In addition to the public financial domain, corrupt
acts are practiced within the administrative domain.
These include such behavior as nepotism and
favoritism based on a “rewards system,” resulting
from a persistent politicization of the bureaucracy;
workers on public payroll; purchase of public offices;
collection of unauthorized fees; falsification or the
destruction of records; arbitrary administrative action
and bending established regulations.
Does underdevelopment cause corruption or
does corruption cause underdevelopment?
Impact of Corruption on Development
Corruption diverts public resources from their
intended purposes to private pockets and distorts
the composition of government expenditure.
“Empirical evidence based on cross-country
comparisons does indeed suggest that corruption
has large, adverse effects on private investment
and economic growth.
Causes of Corruption in Ethiopia
According to the expert analysis of the civil service reform
program and some other sources the causes of corruption
include:
poor governance,
lack of accountability and transparency,
low level of democratic culture and tradition,
lack of citizen participation,
lack of clear regulations and authorization,
low level of institutional control,
extreme poverty and inequity,
harmful cultural practices and
centralization of authority and resources are the major
causes of corruption in Ethiopia.
Consequences of Corruption in Ethiopia
During the Imperial and the Derg Regimes, corruption is
said to have resulted in discouragement of the legitimacy
of the governments and weakening their structures,
reducing productivity, hindering development, worsening
poverty, marginalizing the poor, creating social unrest
and finally speeding up their downfall.
Unfortunately, it has continued to pose threats to the
Country's development and democratization processes.
Currently, corruption is believed to be one of the major
factors that significantly contribute to the reduction of
government revenue.
It can also negatively affect the on-going poverty
reduction program at the national level.
Areas where Corruption is Believed to
be widespread
According to the outcome of the corruption survey
conducted in 2001, the areas where corruption is believed to
be rampant are those where financial resources are
transferred from the private to the public sector and vice
versa.
Other agencies where corruption is believed to be
flourishing include those engaged with the allocation of land
and government housing, provision of telephone and
electric services, granting of loans, licensing and issuance of
permits, collection of taxes and procurement of consumable
and fixed assets.
Customs and excise offices are also believed to be highly
affected by corrupt practices.
The role of civil society in the fight
against corruption in Ethiopia
Currently, there is a global consensus that
corruption has become a very serious threat to
national and international development, social
justice, security and stability.
Therefore, the international community has
launched a global campaign against it.
In this day and age, the fact that corruption is one
of the major global problems has been established
beyond reasonable doubt.
It has particularly become a very dangerous threat
to the economic development and democratization
processes in Africa.
Civil society organizations, in particular, are
believed to be the most decisive and key
stakeholders in the fight against corruption and
impropriety.
In fact, it is no longer contentious to say that
without the active involvement of the civil society
organizations, we would live in a world ridden
with much more corruption and impropriety.
Especially in democratic countries, the role of civil
society organizations is so immense that it has
become so difficult to fight corruption without
their active participation and involvement.
Among the factors that contribute to their
efficiency in the com political impartiality and
closeness to the public.