Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Part 1

Part 2

Part 3
What is Non- Ionising
Radiation? Ionising Radiation
Recap Radiation
here and Laser

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Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Ionising Radiation
Health Risk
Effects of Assessment
What is Ionising and Control
ionisation? Radiation Measures

Sources Quantifying
Exposure of
Ionising
Radiation

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

What is radiation and ionsiation?

Recap by clicking image (Unit IB7 : Part 1)

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Sources of Ionising Radiation

• Consists of alpha particles, beta particles,
gamma ray, x-ray and electromagnetic
radiation.
• Natural sources
o Earth
o Sun (most ionising radiation filtered out by the
atmosphere via the ozone layers)

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Sources of Ionising Radiation

• Man-made source
o Alpha : radionuclides used in smoke detectors,
anti static devices, cancer tumour radiotherapy.
o Beta : radionuclides used in medical and
labotary works as tracers or cancer tumour
radiotherapy
o Neutrons : emitted by fission materials such as
uranium and plutonium inside high-powered
nuclear power plants for physics research facilities
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Sources of Ionising Radiation

• Man-made source
o X-rays : generated by bombarding metal target
with high-energy electrons in a vacuum tube.
Used in medical and industrial radiography, for
scanning people and objects.
o Gamma : emitted by radionuclides such as
caesium and used in medical radiography and
cancer tumour radiotherapy and as medical
tracers in the labotary.
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Routes of Exposure

Absorption Ingestion

Inhalation Injection
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Routes of Exposure
Penetrating Power
Least / Less harmful Most / More harmful

Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays

α β γ

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Routes of Exposure
Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)

Type Largest. Same mass Pure energy

2 protons as electrons. at speed of light
& 2 neutrons
+1 or -1
Charge +2
100 ft in air
Distance 3 to 4 inches Great distances
in air
Stopped by
Penetration Stopped by piece of Stopped by few
Power paper metal inches of lead

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Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Health Effects of Ionising Radiation

Biology
Acute Chronic
Revision

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Health Effects of Ionising Radiation
Biology Revision
• As mentioned in
Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 – Radiation Part 1,
ionisation results in the removal or addition of an
electron in a particle.
• In relations to the human body, ionising radiation
can result in mutation to the human body cells.
• This mutation can cause adverse side effects such
as cancer (uncontrolled proliferation of cells)
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Health Effects of Ionising Radiation
Acute Effects
• There are no known acute effects of very low
levels of ionising radiation, since we are
somehow exposed to it all the time (e.g. sun),
because the damage is minimal and either
repaired or replaced.

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Health Effects of Ionising Radiation
Acute Effects
• However above a certain threshold (also
known as deterministic effects or non-
stochastic), one may experience radiation
sickness or acute radiation syndrome.

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Health Effects of Ionising Radiation
Acute Effects
• Symptoms of acute radiation syndrome:
o Nausea and vomiting, diarrhea
o Hair loss
o Central nervous system impairment
o Skin burns or ulceration
o Death

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Health Effects of Ionising Radiation
Chronic Effects
• An individual might not show symptoms due
to the low levels of radiation, however,
because of the presence of mutation and
damage in the body, there is an increased
chance of cancer generation.
• The chronic effects due to ionising radiation
are stochastic or chaotic.

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Health Effects of Ionising Radiation
Chronic Effects
• Currently there are no known safe level of
exposure to ionising radiation.
• Such damage and mutation to the human
body may affect sterility, and cause heritable
genetic defects in children.

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 Image Credits
http://www.vmcli.com/images/introduction-to-radiation-safety/effects-of-radiation-exposure.jpg
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Quantifying Exposure to Ionising Radiation
1. Radioactivity and the Becquerel (Bq)
o Rate of decaying radionuclide
o No. of disintegration per second
o Does not indicate amount of radiation absorbed

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Quantifying Exposure to Ionising Radiation
2. Absorbed Radiation Dose and the Gray (Gy)
o Amount of energy deposited into matter by
radiation
o One gray is one joule per kilogram
o The higher the amount, the more dangerous
o E.g. 1 gray to a 70kg individual = 75 joules of
energy
o Does not take into account the different types of
ionising radiation and their severity

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Quantifying Exposure to Ionising Radiation
3. Equivalent Dose and the Sievert (Sv)
o Measure of likely biological damage due to the
type of ionising radiation exposure
Equivalent dose = Absorbed dose x Radiation weighing factor
o This is because different radiation has varying
consequences on the body
o Does not account for which part
of the body is absorbing the
radiation, as severity may differ Table Credits
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Unit IB7
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Quantifying Exposure to Ionising Radiation
4. Effective Dose and the Sievert (Sv)
o Measure of whole body dose radiation received
o Each part of the body is given respective tissue
weighing factor.

Effective dose = Sum of (equivalent dose x tissue weighing factor)

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Quantifying Exposure to Ionising Radiation

2&3

Image Credits
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/imgnuc/radris1.gif
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Measurement of Radiation and Exposure

• Radiation can be detected and measured
using specialised equipment.
• They can be used to establish
1. Type of radiation present
2. Quantity of radioactivity
3. Dose of radiation that is being absorbed by the
worker

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Measurement of Radiation and Exposure

• Radiation can be detected and measured
using specialised equipment.
• They can be used to establish
1. Type of radiation present
2. Quantity of radioactivity
3. Dose of radiation that is being absorbed by the
worker

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Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Equipment to detect and measure radiation

Ionisation Scintillation
Chamber Counters

Thermoluminiscen
Film Badges
t Dosimeter

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Equipment to detect and measure radiation
Ionisation Chamber
• Principle instrument used to
detect radiation
Scintillation
Ionisation Chamber Counters • Can be used to detect small
amount of radiation.
• Consists of a gas-filled chamber
Film Badges
Thermoluminiscent with two electrodes
Dosimeter

Image Credits →
https://www.orau.org/ptp/collection/civildefense/720mod2best.jpg

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Equipment to detect and measure radiation
Ionisation Chamber
• Measures the charge from the
ion pairs within the gas caused
Scintillation by incident radiation
Ionisation Chamber Counters
• Used in medical radiotherapy to
ensure that dose delivered is as
Film Badges
Thermoluminiscent intended
Dosimeter

Image Credits
http://www.equipcoservices.com/images/tutorials/introrad2.png
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Equipment to detect and measure radiation
Scintillation Counters
• Employ materials which
produce light on interaction
Scintillation with ionising radiation.
Ionisation Chamber Counters
• Can be used for real-time
screening for radioactive
Film Badges
Thermoluminiscent sources and used to quantify
Dosimeter
radioactivity in samples.

Image Credits →
http://www.deltaepsilon.com/images/radiometric-instruments/SC-133.jpg

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Equipment to detect and measure radiation
Scintillation Counters
• Using the excitation effect of
incident radiation on a
Scintillation scintillation material.
Ionisation Chamber Counters

Thermoluminiscent
Film Badges
Dosimeter

Image Credits →
http://media.web.britannica.com/eb-media/81/62881-004-F0D196D6.gif

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Equipment to detect and measure radiation
Film Badges
• Used to measure and record
radiation exposure due to
Scintillation gamma rays, X-rays and beta
Ionisation Chamber Counters
particles.
• Worn by workers who may be
Film Badges
Thermoluminiscent exposed to radiation during
Dosimeter
their course of work.

Image Credits →
http://www.bbc.co.uk/staticarchive/ef1363b91ca0ba080dfe7716f4e4494b952aafaf.gif

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Equipment to detect and measure radiation
Film Badges
• Badge consists of two parts; a
photographic film and a
Scintillation holder.
Ionisation Chamber Counters
• Film is removed and
developed to measure
Film Badges
Thermoluminiscent exposure.
Dosimeter

Image Credits →
https://i.ytimg.com/vi/5JSvcGcWRY0/hqdefault.jpg

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Equipment to detect and measure radiation
Thermoluminiscent Dosimeter
• TLD is a type of radiation
dosimeter.
Scintillation
Ionisation Chamber Counters • Measures ionising radiation
and exposure by measuring
the intensity of visible light
Film Badges
Thermoluminiscent from a crystal in the detector
Dosimeter
when the crystal is heated.

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Equipment to detect and measure radiation
Thermoluminiscent Dosimeter

Scintillation
Ionisation Chamber Counters

Thermoluminiscent
Film Badges
Dosimeter

Image Credits
http://www.weather.gov.hk/radiation/tidbit/200809/images/image_q5e.jpg

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Approved Dosimetry Services

• ILO CoP – Radiation Protection of Workers (Ionising
Radiation) establishes primary dose limits of 50mSv
as an annual effective dose equivalent for workers
above 18 years old
• These limits may differ based on national legislation.
• Employers are required to categorise:
i. Workers engaged in radiation work
ii. Workers not engaged in radiation work, but might
be exposed because of their work.
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Risk Assessment
• ILO CoP – Ambient Factors in the Workplace
establishes requirements for an ionising
radiation risk assessment

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Risk Assessment

Identification of
sources of normal and Realistic estimation Radiation controls
reasonably foreseeable doses nedded
potential exposure

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation

Risk Assessment
• Safety assessment should include:
o Nature, magnitude and likelihood of potential
exposures
o Limits and technical conditions for operation of the
source
o Possible failure modes in structure, system and
procedure or environment change which may result in
exposure
o Ways error in operation may occur
o Safety implications of any proposed modifications
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
ILO Requirements for Control of Ionising Radiation
• Notification, registration and licensing of radiation work
from a competent authority
• Classification of workers and areas
• Competent advice from Radiation Protection Officers to
survey the application of radiation protection, regulations
and provide advice on all relevant aspects of radiation
protection
• Radiation surveillance using scintillation detectors,
badges or approved dosimetry services
• Health surveillance of workers
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Control measures for ionising radiation aim to
minimise:
o Exposure to external radiation arising from outside
the body
o Exposure to internal radiation arising from radioactive
substances which could enter the body.
Control measures will principally involve:
o Shielding of external radiation
o Strict containment of radioactive chemicals that may
enter the body.

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Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Elimination / Isolation

Substitution

Admin Control
Control
Engineering
E
PP

Consider the following

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Elimination / Isolation
• Can the source be eliminated/isolated from the workers?
Substitution
• Can the source be substituted for a less harmful product?
Administrative Control
• Is there a safe system of work in place? Training?
Engineering Control
• Are the facilities sufficiently safe to protect the workers?
PPE
• Are there PPE and training provided for the workers?
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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Control Measures
1. Design Features
2. Building Designs and Ventilation
3. Time-Distance-Shielding
4. Use of PPE and good hygiene practices

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Design Features
• The actual design of the radioactive facilities
should be able to contain and minimise
external radiation via:
o Shielding
o Remote operation
o Restricted access

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Design Features
• Internal radiation may be prevented by
o Handling in ventilated facilities with glove boxes
and fume cupboards
o Sealed storage
o Providing clean surfaces to prevent accumulation
of radioactive contamination
o Facilities for hygiene practices such as hand
washing sink and changing rooms

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Building Design and Ventilation
• Ventilation where radioactive processes are
being carried out should be negatively
pressured in the case of accidental spill, the
radiation will be driven out instead.
• Other designs should include proper layout
and sitting areas to prevent accidental
release for radiation.

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Time-Distance-Shielding
• By reducing the exposure time, the
accumulated dose amount is reduced.

Dose = Intensity x Time

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Time-Distance-Shielding
1
1
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
Power [Sv/h]

1/4
1/9 1/16 1/25 1/36

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance [m]

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Time-Distance-Shielding

Radiation Source

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Time-Distance-Shielding
• By the trough passing, radiation will be
absorbed.(every material absorbs differently)
• Alpha particles are easily shielded
• Beta particles can be stopped by a few
millimeters of aluminum
• Gamma and x-ray can be
stopped by lead.

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 Unit IB7 : Physical Agents 2 - Radiation
Radiation Controls
Use of PPE and good hygiene practices
• Employers are required to ensure that workers
dealing with radioactivity are trained, both in
carrying out the processes and in hygiene to
prevent contamination after source handling.
• Employers should provide the proper PPE
required for workers who are handling
radioactive substances such as;
o Respiratory Protective Equipment
o PPE for skin protection
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