PowerPoint to accompany

Technology of Machine Tools

6th Edition

Krar • Gill • Smid

Machinability of Metals
Unit 28

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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 28-2

Objectives
• Explain the factors that affect the
machinability of metals
• Describe the difference between high-carbon
steel and alloy steel.
• Assess the effects of temperature and cutting
fluids on the surface finish produced
 28-3

Machinability
• Ease or difficulty with which metal can be
machines
• Measured by length of cutting-tool life in
minutes or by rate of stock removal in
relation to cutting speed employed (depth of
cut)
 28-4

Grain Structure
• Machinability of metal affected by its
microstructure
• Ductility and shear strength modified
greatly by operations such as annealing,
normalizing and stress relieving
• Certain chemical and physical modifications
of steel improve machinability
– Addition of sulfur, lead, or sodium sulfite
– Cold working, which modifies ductility
 28-5

Results of (Free-Machining)
Modifications
• Three main machining characteristics
become evident
– Tool life is increased
– Better surface finish produced
– Lower power consumption required for
machining
 28-6

Low-Carbon (Machine) Steel

• Large areas of ferrite interspersed with
small areas of pearlite
– Ferrite: soft, high ductility and low strength
– Pearlite: low ductility and high strength
• Combination of ferrite and iron carbide
• More desirable microstructure in steel is
when pearlite well distributed instead of in
layers
 28-7

High-Carbon (Tool) Steel

• Greater amount of pearlite because of

higher carbon content
– More difficult to machine steel efficiently
• Desirable to anneal these steels to alter
microstructures
– Improves machining qualities
 28-8

Alloy Steel
• Combinations of two or more metals
• Generally slightly more difficult to machine
than low-or high-carbon steels
• To improve machining qualities
– Combinations of sulfur and lead or sulfur and
manganese in proper proportions added
– Combination of normalizing and annealing
• Machining of stainless steel greatly eased
by addition of selenium
 28-9

Cast Iron
• Consists generally of ferrite, iron carbide,
and free carbon
• Microstructure controlled by addition of
alloys, method of casting, rate of cooling,
and heat treating
• White cast iron cooled rapidly after casting
– hard and brittle (formation of hard iron carbide)
• Gray cast iron cooled gradually
– composed by compound pearlite, fine ferrite,
iron carbide and flakes of graphite (softer)
 28-10

Cast Iron
• Machining slightly difficult due to iron
carbide and presence of sand on outer
surface of casting
• Microstructure altered through annealing
– Iron carbide broken down into graphitic carbon
and ferrite
• Easier to machine
• Addition of silicon, sulfur and manganese
gives cast iron different qualities
 28-11

Aluminum
• Pure aluminum generally more difficult to
machine than aluminum alloys
– Produces long stringy chips and harder on
cutting tool
• Aluminum alloys
– Cut at high speeds, yield good surface finish
– Hardened and tempered alloys easier to
machine
– Silicon in alloy makes it difficult to machine
• Chips tear from work (poor surface)
 28-12

Copper
• Heavy, soft, reddish-colored metal refined
from copper ore (copper sulfide)
– High electrical and thermal conductivity
– Good corrosion resistance and strength
– Easily welded, brazed or soldered
– Very ductile
• Anneal: heat at 1200º F and quench in water
• Does not machine well: long chips clog
flutes of cutting tool
– Coolant should be used to minimize heat
 28-13

Copper-Based Alloys: Brass

• Alloy of copper and zinc with good corrosion
resistance, easily formed, machines, and cast
• Several forms of brass
– Alpha brasses: up to 36% zinc, suitable for cold
working
– Alpha 1 beta brasses: Contain 54%-62% copper
and used in hot working
• Small amounts of tin or antimony added to
minimize pitting effect of salt water
• Used for water and gas line fittings, tubings,
tanks, radiator cores, and rivets
 28-14

Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

• Alloys of copper and tin which contain up
to 12% of principal alloying element
– Exception: copper-zinc alloys
• Phosphor-bronze
– 90% copper, 10% tin, and very small amount of
phosphorus
– High strength, toughness, corrosion resistance
– Used for lock washers, cotter pins, springs and
clutch discs
 28-15

Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

• Silicon-bronze (copper-silicon alloy)
– Contains less than 5% silicon
– Strongest of work-hardenable copper alloys
– Mechanical properties of machine steel and
corrosion resistance of copper
– Used for tanks, pressure vessels, and hydraulic
pressure lines
 28-16

Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

• Aluminum-bronze (copper-aluminum alloy)
– Contains between 4% and 11% aluminum
– Other elements added
• Iron and nickel (both up to 5%) increases strength
• Silicon (up to 2%) improves machinability
• Manganese promotes soundness in casting
– Good corrosion resistance and strength
– Used for condenser tubes, pressure vessels, nuts
and bolts
 28-17

Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

• Beryllium-bronze (copper and beryllium)
– Contains up to 2% beryllium
– Easily formed in annealed condition
– High tensile strength and fatigue strength in
hardened condition
– Used for surgical instruments, bolts, nuts, and
screws
 28-18

Effects of
Temperature and Friction
• Heat created
– Plastic deformation occurring in metal during
process of forming chip
– Friction created by chips sliding along cutting-
tool face
• Cutting temperature varies with each metal
and increases with cutting speed and rate of
metal removal
 28-19

Effects of
Temperature and Friction
• Greatest heat generated when ductile
material of high tensile strength cut
• Lowest heat generated when soft material of
low tensile strength cut
• Maximum temperature attained during
cutting action
– affects cutting-tool life, quality of surface
finish, rate of production and accuracy of
workpiece
 28-20

High Heat
• Temperature of metal immediately ahead of
cutting tool comes close to melting
temperature of metal being cut
• High-speed cutting tools
– Red hardness: turn red when cutting metal
• Occurs at temperatures above 900º F
• Edge breaks down beginning at 1000º and higher
• Cemented-carbide cutting tools
– Use efficiently up to 1600º F
 28-21

Friction
• Kept low as possible for efficient cutting
action
• Increasing coefficient of friction gives
greater possibility of built-up edge forming
– Larger built-up edge, more friction
– Results in breakdown of cutting edge and poor
surface finish
• Can reduce friction at chip-tool interface
and help maintain efficient cutting
temperatures if use good supply of cutting
fluid
 28-22

Factors Affecting Surface Finish

• Feed rate
• Nose radius of tool
• Cutting speed
• Rigidity of machining operation
• Temperature generated during machining
process
 28-23

Surface Finish
• Direct relationship between temperature of
workpiece and quality of surface finish
– High temperature yields rough surface finish
– Metal particles tend to adhere to cutting tool and
form built-up edge
• Cooling work material reduces temperature
of cutting-tool edge
– Result in better surface finish
 28-24

Effects of Cutting Fluids

• Perform three important functions
– Reduce temperature of cutting action
– Reduce friction of chips sliding along tool face
– Decrease tool wear and increase tool life
• Three types of cutting fluids
– Cutting oils
– Emulsifiable (soluble) oils
– Chemical (synthetic) cutting fluids
 28-25

Cutting Fluids
• Generally used for machining steel, alloy steel,
brass and bronze with high-speed steel cutting
tools
• Not used with cemented-carbide tools
– If used, great quantities of cutting fluid are applied to
ensure uniform temperatures to prevent carbide inserts
from cracking
• Not generally used with cast iron, aluminum, and
magnesium alloys
– Good results have been found in some cases