AREN 304

SOIL MECHANICS
INSTRUCTOR: DR. (MRS) PEACE AMOATEY
Classification of Soils
 What are Soils?

• Particulate materials
- Sedimentary origins (usually)
- Residual
• Wide range of particle sizes
- larger particles: quartz, feldspar
- very small particles: clay minerals
• Voids between particles
Soil Index Properties

4
 What is Soil Classification?

• Different soils with similar properties may be classified into

groups and sub-groups according to their engineering behavior.
• Classification systems provide a common language to
concisely express the general characteristics of soils.
• Most of the soil classification systems that have been
developed for engineering purposes are based on simple index
properties such as particle-size distribution and plasticity.
• Although several classification systems are now in use, none is
totally definitive of any soil for all possible applications
because of the wide diversity of soil properties.
 Why classify Soils?
• Usually soil on site (in situ) has to be used. Soils differ from
other engineering materials in that one has little control over
their properties.
• Physical and mechanical properties of the in situ soil have to be
determined to determine it suitability for various purposes.
• Cheap and simple tests gives an indication of engineering
properties, e.g. stiffness, strength, for preliminary design.
• The classification uses core samples obtained from the ground.
This information is often supplemented by in-situ tests such as
cone penetration tests.
 Classification Systems
• Soils in nature rarely exist separately as gravel, sand,
silt, clay or organic matter, but are usually found as
mixtures with varying proportions of these
components.

• Classifying soils into groups with similar behaviour,

in terms of simple indices, can provide geotechnical
engineers a general guidance about engineering
properties of the soils through the accumulated
experience.
 Purposes of Classification Systems
These systems have two main purposes
• To determine the suitability of different soils for
various purposes
• To develop correlations with useful soil properties, for
example, compressibility and strength
The reason for the large number of such systems is the
use of particular systems for certain types of
construction, and the development of localised
systems.
 Classification based on Particle Size

• Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy

• e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals
• Broad Classification
• Coarse grained soils: usually round and highly angular
• sands, gravels - visible to naked eye
• Fine grained soils: particles smaller than 60 µm (microns)
• Silts: dilatancy and grittiness
• Clays: plasticity and ability to attain high strengths
• Organic soils : have poor engineering properties
Classification based on Particle Size
 Textural Classification

• In this system, the soils are

named after their principal
components, such as sandy clay,
silty clay, and so forth.
• This chart is based on only the
fraction of soil that passes
through the No. 10 sieve.
• If the particle-size distribution U.S. Department of Agriculture textural
classification
of a soil is such that a certain
percentage of the soil particles
is larger than 2 mm in diameter,
a correction will be necessary.
 Textural Classification
This chart is based on
U.S. Department of only the fraction of
Agriculture textural
classification soil that passes
through the No. 10
sieve.

Soil A is Clay loam

Particle-size distribution of soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt, and 30%
 Textural Classification

For example, if soil B has a particlesize distribution of 20% gravel, 10%

sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, the modified textural compositions are
 
S = 12.5%
.
 
S = 37.5%
 
Clay = 50%
On the basis of the preceding modified percentages, the USDA textural
classification is clay. However, because of the large percentage of gravel,
 Determination of Grain Size

• Two ways --based on broad classification

• Sieve Analysis-----Coarse grained soils (used for particles > 75 µm)

• Hydrometer test---------Fine grained soils (Based on Stoke’s Law,
velocity proportional to diameter)
 Determination of Grain Size
• Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm

Schematic of sieve analysis

 Determination of Grain Size
• Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm

Schematic of sieve analysis

 Grading curves
100

80

% Finer
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

W Well graded
 Determination of Grain Size
• Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm
• Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles
• Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

 Procedure for grain size determination
• Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm
• Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles
• Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to
diameter

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

 Grading curves
100

80

% Finer
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

W Well graded
 Grading curves
100

% Finer 80

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

W Well graded U Uniform

 Grading curves
100

% Finer 80

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded U Uniform P Poorly graded
 Grading curves
100

80
% F ine r
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

W Well graded U Uniform P Poorly graded C Well graded with some clay
 Grading curves
100

80
% F iner
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

W Well graded U Uniform P Poorly graded C Well graded with some clay F Well graded
with an excess of fines
 Grading curves
A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the
following four parameters for a given soil.

1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-

size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size
of a granular soil is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic
conductivity and drainage through soil.

2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as:

 Grading curves
3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as

4. Sorting coefficient (S0): This parameter is another measure of

uniformity and is generally encountered in geologic works and
expressed as

The sorting coefficient is not frequently used as a parameter by

geotechnical engineers.
 Atterberg Limits
• Atterberg limits describe the nature of fine-grained soils.
•• These
  limits measure the water absorbing ability of soils
containing clay.
• Fine grained soils (% passing the a 425 µm sieve) we define
moisture content limits
• SL - Shrinkage Limit: moisture content at which the volume of soil
mass ceases to change or no further shrinkage occurs on drying.
mass of water
Moisture content 
mass of solids
 Atterberg Limits

• PL - Plastic Limit: the minimum water content at which the

soil will deform plastically
• LL - Liquid limit: the minimum water content at which
the soil will flow under a small disturbing force.
• Clays have very high LL as it is capable of absorbing large
amounts of water.
• Not suitable for the base of pavements
• Pl and LL are related to soil strength
 Atterberg Limits
•
•
• LI and LL shows how high an amount of water a soil can absorb
• 
Atterberg Limits
Atterberg Limits
 Plasticity Chart
L H •The A-line generally
separates the more
claylike materials
from silty materials,
PI
and the organics from
the inorganics.
•The U-line indicates
the upper bound for
general soils.

Note: If the measured

limits of soils are on
LL
the left of U-line, they
should be rechecked.33
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
 Classification by Engineering Behavior

Two commonly used systems for Classifying soils

based on particle distribution and Atterberg limits:

• American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials System (AASHTO)

• The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 AASHTO Soil Classification System

• The AASHTO system of soil classification was

developed in 1929 as the Public Road Administration
classification system.
• The present version proposed by the Committee on
Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular
Type Roads of the Highway Research Board in 1945
(ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO method M145)
has 7 classes.
 AASHTO Soil Classification System
• The AASHTO classification in present use classifies soils
into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7.
• Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are
granular materials of which 35% or less of the
particles pass through the No. 200 sieve (0.075
mm).
• Soils of which more than 35% pass through the No.
200 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6,
and A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type
materials.
 AASHTO Soil Classification System
This classification system is based on the following
criteria:
1. Grain size
• Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm (3-in.) sieve and
retained on the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve
• Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve
and retained on the No. 200 (0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
• Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve
 AASHTO Soil Classification System

2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine

fractions of the soil have a plasticity index of 10 or less.
The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a
plasticity index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are
encountered, they are excluded from the portion of the
soil sample from which classification is made. However,
the percentage of such material is recorded.
AASHTO Soil Classification System
AASHTO Soil Classification System
 AASHTO Soil Classification System

• To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade

material, one must also incorporate a number called the group
index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of the soil.
• This index is written in parentheses after the group or subgroup
designation. The group index is given by the equation

 𝐺𝐼 = ( 𝐹 200 − 35 ) [ 0.2 +0.005 ( 𝐿𝐿 − 40 ) ] +0.01 ( 𝐹200 − 15 ) ( 𝑃𝐼 − 1 0 )

where F200 percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve

LL is liquid limit
PI is plasticity
 AASHTO- Group Index
The first term is determined by the LL

GI  ( F200  35) 0.2  0.005( LL  40)

 0.01( F200  15)( PI  10)
The second term is determined by the PI
For Group A-2-6 and A-2-7

GI  0.01(F200  15)( PI  10) use the second term only

F200: percentage passing through the No.200 sieve

In general, the rating for a pavement subgrade is inversely

proportional to the group index, GI. 42
AASHTO Soil Classification System
AASHTO Soil Classification System
 AASHTO Soil Classification System
It must be noted that:
•The higher the value of GI the weaker will be the soil and vice versa.
Thus, quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is
inversely proportional to GI.
•A soil having GI of zero is considered as the best.
•If the equation gives negative value for GI, consider it zero.
•Always round off the GI to nearest whole number.
•GI=0f or soils of groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3.
•For groups A-2-6 and A-2-7 use partial GI for PI only:
 AASHTO Soil Classification System
•Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials:
 AASHTO Soil Classification System
•Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials:
AASHTO Soil Classification System
AASHTO Soil Classification System
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande
(1948) for the purpose of airfield construction during World War
II. Afterwards, it was modified by Professor Casagrande, the
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers to enable the system to be applicable to dams,
foundations, and other construction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
Four major divisions:
(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat 50
 Unified Soil Classification
• Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The
following procedure is used.
• Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)
• Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand
• Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel
• Suffix depends on %fines
• if %fines < 5% suffix is either W or P
• if %fines > 12% suffix is either M or C
• if 5% < %fines < 12% Dual symbols are used
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine if W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
D10 x% of the soil has particles smaller
than Dx

D302
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
100
D60
Uniformity coefficient Cu  x% of the soil has particles
80 D10 smaller than Dx

D302
60 Cc 
% Finer

Coefficient of curvature ( D60  D10 )

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Uniformity coefficient Cu  x% of the soil has particles
D10 smaller than Dx
2
D30
Coefficient of curvature Cc 
( D60  D10 )
100

80
% F ine r

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60 x% of the soil has particles smaller
Uniformity coefficient Cu  than Dx
D10
2
D30
Coefficient of curvature Cc 
( D60  D10 )
100

80
% F ine r

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
D90 = 3 mm
Particle size (mm)
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
D10

2
D
Cc  30

( D60  D10 )

If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3

 Unified Soil Classification
Coarse grained soils
To determine M or C use plasticity chart
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
with increasing plasticity index
40

Plasticity index
CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Below A-line use suffix M - Silt
Above A-line use suffix C - Clay
 Unified Soil Classification
• Fine grained soils (> 50% finer than 75 mm)
• Both letters determined from plasticity chart
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
with increasing plasticity index
40

Plasticity index
CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
 Unified soil classification (including identification and description)

Field identification procedures Group Information required for Laboratory classification

(Excluding particles larger than 75mm and basing fractions on symbols Typical names
1 describing soils criteria
estimated weights)

Depending on percentages of fines (fraction smaller than .075mm

Wide range of grain size and substantial GW Well graded gravels, gravel- D
Give typical names: indicate ap- C U = --- 60 Greater than 4

Bordeline case requiring use of dual symbols

Gravels with Clean gravels

Determine percentages of gravel and sand from grain size curve

(little or no
amounts of all intermediate particle sand mixtures, little or no proximate percentages of sand D 10
2

fines)
sizes fines and gravel: maximum size: (D )
More than half of coarse

C c = ----------30
----------- Between 1 and 3
fraction is larger than
Predominantly one size or a range of GP Poorly graded gravels, gravel- angularity, surface condition, D10 x D60

sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows

sizes with some intermediate sizes sand mixtures, little or no and hardness of the coarse
More than half of material is larger than

missing fines grains: local or geological name Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
2.36mm
Gravels

and other pertinent descriptive

amount of fines)

Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Non-plastic fines (for identification GM Silty gravels, poorly information and symbol in
(apreciable procedures see ML below) graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures parentheses. Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with
fines

PI between 4 and 7
The .075mm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye

"A" line or PI less than 4

Coarse grained soils
.075mm sieve size

Plastic fines (for identification pro- GC Clayey gravels, poorly graded For undisturbed soils add infor- are borderline cases
cedures see CL below) gravel-sand-clay mixtures mation on stratification, degree Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual

More than 12% GM, GC, SM, SC

line with PI greater than 7 symbols

GW, GP, SW, SP

of compactness, cementation,
Wide range in grain sizes and sub- moisture conditions and drain- D
SW Well graded sands, gravelly
stantial amounts of all intermediate age characteristics. C U =---- 60 Greater than 6
Clean sands
no

particle sizes sands, little or no fines D 10

fines)
or
More than half of coarse

(D )2
fraction is smaller than

Example:
C c = ------------30
---------- Between 1 and 3
(little

Predominantely one size or a range of SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly Silty sand, gravelly; about 20% D 10 x D60
sizes with some intermediate sizes missing sands, little or no fines hard angular gravel particles
2.36mm

12.5mm maximum size; rounded Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
Sands

amount of fines)

Non-plastic fines (for identification pro- SM Silty sands, poorly graded and subangular sand grains
(appreciable

Less than 5%
Sands with

cedures, see ML below) sand-silt mixtures coarse to fine, about 15% non- Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with

5% to 12%
plastic lines with low dry PI between 4 and 7
fines

"A" line or PI less than 4

Plastic fines (for identification pro- SC Clayey sands, poorly graded strength; well compacted and are borderline cases
cedures, see CL below) sand-clay mixtures moist in places; alluvial sand; Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
(SM) line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Identification procedure on fraction smaller than .425mm
sieve size
Dry strength Dilatency Toughness
More than half of material is smaller than

crushing (consistency
Silts and clays

(reaction
less than 50
liquid limit

character- to shaking) near plastic

istics limit)
Inorganic silts and very fine sands, Give typical name; indicate degree
None to Quick to rock flour, silty or clayey
slight slow None ML and character of plasticity, 60
Fine grained soils
.075mm sieve size

fine sands with slight plasticity

amount and maximum size of Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
Medium to None to very Inorganic clays of low to medium coarse grains: colour in wet con-
Medium CL,CI plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy dition, odour if any, local or
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
high slow clays, silty clays, lean clays with increasing plasticity index
geological name, and other pert-
Slight to Organic silts and organic silt- inent descriptive information, and 40

Plasticity index
medium Slow Slight OL clays of low plasticity CH
symbol in parentheses
30 CI
inorganic silts, micaceous or
Silts and clays

Slight to Slow to Slight to For undisturbed soils add infor-

greater than

dictomaceous fine sandy or

liquid limit

medium none medium MH mation on structure, stratif- OH

silty soils, elastic silts 20
ication, consistency and undis-
50

High to very Inorganic clays of high turbed and remoulded states, or

None High CL OL
high CH plasticity, fat clays moisture and drainage conditions 10
CL-ML or MH
ML
Medium to None to very Slight to Organic clays of medium to Example 0
high high medium OH high plasticity Clayey silt, brown: slightly plastic: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Readily identified by colour, odour small percentage of fine sand:
Highly organic soils spongy feel and frequently by fibrous Pt Peat and other highly organic soils numerous vertical root holes: firm Plasticity chart
and dry in places; loess; (ML) for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
texture
Solved Examples
 Plasticity Chart
L H •The A-line generally
separates the more
claylike materials
from silty materials,
PI
and the organics from
the inorganics.
•The U-line indicates
the upper bound for
general soils.

Note: If the measured

limits of soils are on
LL
the left of U-line, they
should be rechecked.62
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
 Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)
•For the following three conditions, a dual symbol should be used.
• Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
-About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the coarse-
grained media by orders of magnitude.
-The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or
poorly graded. The second symbol describe the contained fines. For
example: SP-SM, poorly graded sand with silt.
• Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone. (PI between 4 and
7 and LL between about 12 and 25).
-It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more claylike
materials.
-CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.
•
65
Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.
- possible dual symbols GM-ML
Borderline Cases (Summary)

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

66
 Example
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
 Example
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
• %fines (% finer than 75 mm) = 11% - Dual symbols required
 Example
100

80
% F iner
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
• %fines (% finer than 75 mm) = 11% - Dual symbols required
• D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm
 Example 1
100

% Finer 80

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Particle size fractions: Gravel 17% Sand 73% Silt and Clay 10%
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence
Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
 Example
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
with increasing plasticity index
40

Plasticity index CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM
 Example 2

Size (mm) % finer

76.2 100
4.75 100
0.075 62
- 0
 Example 2
Sieve No Size (mm) % retained
4 4.75 0
10 2.00 40
20 0.85 60
40 0.50 89
60 0.25 140
80 0.18 122
100 0.15 210
200 0.075 56
Pan - 12
 Example 2
Sieve No Size (mm) Mass retained Cummulative
on each sieve mass retained
above each sieve

4 4.75 0 0 =
10 2.00 40 10
10 2.00 40 10
20 0.85 60 100
20 0.85 60 100
40 0.50 89 189
40 0.50 89 189
60 0.25 140 329
60 0.25 140 329
80 0.18 122 451
80 0.18 122 451
100 0.15 210 661
100 0.15 210 661
200 0.075 56 717
200 0.075 56 717
Pan - 12 729 = ΣM
Pan - 12 729 = ΣM

Draw the particle-size distribution curve and determine Cu and Cc

 Example 2
Sieve No Size (mm) Mass retained Cummulative
on each sieve mass retained
above each sieve

4 4.75 0 0 100
10 2.00 40 10 94.5
20 0.85 60 100 86.3
40 0.50 89 189 74.1
60 0.25 140 329 54.9
80 0.18 122 451 38.1
100 0.15 210 661 9.3
200 0.075 56 717 1.7
Pan - 12 729 = ΣM 0

Classify soil
 Example 2

D10 = 0.15 mm
D30 = 0.17 mm
D60 = 0.27 mm

= =1.8
Example 3

Hydrometer