Lecture 1 - 2 Branch of Geology

FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOLOGY
-1
ER
T
AP
Chapter content
CH
 An Introduction to Geology
 Branches of Geology
 Structure of the Earth
 Plate Tectonics Concept
-1
T E R Branches of Geology
A P
CH  The numerous sub-disciplines of geology can be classified
into different branches based on:
 the subject matter covered, or
FUNDAMENTALS OF
 its application.
 According to the subject matter covered, geology can be

GEOLOGY
divided into two major fields:
 Physical geology, &
 Historical geology
 According to its practical purposes, geology is can be

subdivided into Pure geology and Applied geology.
R-1
T E
A P
CH
Physical geology Vs Historical geology
Physical geology deals with
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY…
‾ the Earth materials
‾ the structure & surface features of the earth;
‾ the internal & external processes & forces that act

upon and give its present structure and
appearance; &
‾ how these materials, structures, processes, &

forces have changed over time.
R-1
T E
AP
CH Physical geology Vs Historical geology…
Historical geology deals with
‾ the history of Earth
‾ its changing face and structure, and
‾ the changing forms of living things whose remains

or trace are found as fossils in rocks.
OR
‾ examines the origin and evolution of Earth, its

continents, oceans, atmosphere, and life.
R-1 Pure geology Vs Applied geology
T E
AP
CH Pure geology deals with
‾ the origin of Earth
‾ the processes which formed and change it, and

‾ the nature of the materials which constitute it.
 Some of the areas of specialization include:
 Mineralogy & Crystallography  minerals & crystals
 Petrology & Petrography  rocks (classfn., identifn.)
 Historical geology (Palaeontology, Stratigraphy)  fossils & history
 Physical geology (Geomorphology)  sur. features & origin
 Structural geology & Tectonics  structural features &
effects of internal processes on its surface
R-1 Pure geology Vs Applied geology…
T E
P
A Applied geology
CH
 applies the principles of Pure geology and other

sciences to understand the nature of the Earth (the

processes & materials), and to extract the natural
resources.
 Some of the common areas of specialization include:
 Economic geology  minerals & rocks
 Mining geology  techniques of exploration &
extraction
 Petroleum geology origin & occurrence of fossil fuels
 Hydrogeology  Surface & groundwater
R-1
T E Applied geology…
AP
CH
 Geochemistry  applies principles of chemistry to
PURE GEOLOGY VS APPLIED GEOLOGY …
investigate composition of the earth

 Geophysics  uses principles of physics to study
Earth’s internal structure & processes
 Env’tal geol.  anthropogenic impact on the natural env’t
 Remote Sensing & GIS  applies principles of Space &
Computer science to study the earth & its resources,
 Military geology  warfare
 Medical Geology  effects of geologic materials &
processes on living things
 Forensic geology  law, crime investigation
R-
T E
AP Branches of Geology….
CH
Main (Principal) Allied Branches
1
1. General geology, 1. Engineering geology
2. Physical geology
2. Marine geology
(Geomorphology),
3. Geophysics
3. Geotectonics
4. Mineralogy (Crystallography 4. Geochemistry
inclusive), 5. Geo-hydrology /
5. Petrology (Igneous, Sedimentary & Hydrogeology
Metamorphic),
6. Environmental geology.
6. Structural geology,

7. Historical geology or Stratigraphy,
8. Palaeontology,
9. Economic geology
STRUCTURE OF THE
EARTH
-1
P TER Structure of the Earth
A
CH The Earth:
 Early Earth was
 undifferentiated, homogenous material similar to
FUNDAMENTALS OF
average solar system composition, and

 extremely hot (gravitational potential energy of
GEOLOGY
nebular dust becomes kinetic energy & finally

thermal energy as Earth condenses)
 Later, the Earth was differentiated into different layers
where by the interior most part was formed as molten
iron separates from molten silicates & sinks to center of
the planet due to its high density.
R-1
T E
A P
CH
 The Earth is not composed of a homogeneous materials,

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
rather materials are arranged in a serious of concentric

layers of differing nature.
How We Know?
 Its is not possible to get a direct access to the interior of
the earth.
 So far, the deepest part of the earth that

can be directly accessed is only 12.5 Km.
 By analyzing seismic refraction and seismic reflection

data from all over the world, geophysicists have
identified boundaries that separate three concentric
parts of the earth: the crust, mantle, and core.
-
ER EVIDENCE
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH… 1 APT
CH
 Indirect methods have been used to study the interior structure

& composition of the Earth.
 Scientific understanding of Earth's internal structure is possible

based on: observations, analysis, measurements, & experiments.
1. Simple Mathematical Computation

Average earth =5.52g/cc
Density of rocks at the surface=2.7g/cc, nearly half of
the average earth density.
⟾This implies, the interior of the earth should be
composed of materials denser than the surface rocks.
R-
T E
A P Evidence…
CH
1 ⟾ Based on this simple evidence, the earth was
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH…
modeled to be composed of three layers of different

density.
i. From surface – 40Km:-
 Composed of light silicate materials,

avg.=2.7g/cc
ii. From 40 -3000Km:-
 composed of heavy silicate materials, avg.= 6-7g/cc
iii. From 3000 - the center:-

R-
T E
A P Evidence…
CH
1 2. Meteoritic evidence
Meteorite has similar nature to the inner planetary group to

which the earth belongs.
Three major meteorites /possibly representing three
different layers of the disintegrated planet/have been
recognized.
i. Stony meteorites  composed light silicate materials  surface
of the asteroids
ii. Iron-nickel meteorites  composed of Fe-Ni alloys  interior of
the asteroids
iii. Stony- iron meteorites  composed of both silicates & Fe-Ni
alloys  intermediary of the asteroids
R-
T E Evidence…
A P
CH
1 ⟾ the different meteorites indicates that the inner
planets are made of different layers of materials.
⟾ this infers the is made up of three different layers.
XENOLITHS:-materials directly comes from the depth

(100Km) of the earth enclosed within magmas during
volcanic eruptions.
⟾ their composition of the earth of 100Km
⟾ are generally composed of heavy silicates of Mg &

Fe.
R-
T E Evidence…
A P
CH
1
3. Earthquake (Seismic waves)Evidence
If the earth were uniform, the velocity of these seismic

waves would have been the same through out its depth.
The velocity of the waves increases & decreases with

depth & shows particularly sharp changes at depth 40
Km & 2900Km Seismic discontinuities.
 NB: All the above evidences show that the Earth’s interior
is made up of different density, composition & structure.
R-
E
T The Earth’s Layers
AP
CH
1  The Earth is formed of three
concentric layers: the core, the

mantle & the crust;
 These are separated by transition
zones called discontinuities.
f E a rth 3 .
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C: L
R-
TE
A P CURST:
CH
1
 from surface up to an
average depth of 40 Km.
The Earth’s Layers…
 made up of light density silicate rocks

 average density is about 2.7g/cc
 have d/t thickness @ continents & oceans
 thicker but lighter beneath the continents
 thinner but denser beneath the oceans
 The oceanic crust: Fe & Mg silicates (basalt & gabbro)
 The continental crust: K, Al, & Na silicates ( granite)
 continental crust would "float" on oceanic crust because
continental crust is less dense ( 2.7 g/cm3; 3 .0 g/cm3).
R-
P TE MANTLE
A
CH
1
 from 40-2900 Km
depth
 made up of heavy
density silicate rocks
 solid with some local fluid plume @ its upper part 

Low- Velocity (Asthenosphere)
 It is a layer of hot, partially molten rock (magma)
 It makes up about 66% of the total mass of the Earth
 It is composed of silicon, oxygen, magnesium and iron
 subdivided: upper-& lower-Mantle
CORE
Shadow zones
 The behavior of P and S seismic
waves has been used to identify the
presence of the core .

 When P waves are refracted inward
when they encounter the core.
 This refraction creates two areas on
the opposite side of the earth where P
waves are not detected. P-wave
shadow zones.
CORE…
Shadow zones
 S waves cannot penetrate the region of
the core at all, creating an extensive
S-wave shadow zone across about half
of the earth's surface.

 Since S waves can pass through only solid material, it is
very likely that at least the outermost core is liquid or
molten.
 Combining this information with a more detailed analysis of
P waves traveling through the core, geophysicists think the
core has two parts : a solid inner core and a liquid outer
core.
R-
P TE CORE…
A
CH
1
 from 2900 Km to center
 made up of heavy Fe-
Nickel alloys
 Both these metals are magnetic, which is why the

Earth has a magnetic field
 has two parts:
 Outer core which is liquid
 Inner core which is solid
 It is a layer of hot, partially molten rock (magma)
 the hottest part of the earth
R-
P TE
A
CH Summary of the Earth Structure
1
 There are 3 layers: crust,
mantle & core

 There is continental (thick) &
oceanic crust (thin)
 The inner core is solid while
the outer core is liquid
Summary of the Earth Structure---
End

Lecture 1 - 2 Branch of Geology

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FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOLOGY

 According to the subject matter covered, geology can be

divided into two major fields:

 Physical geology, &

 According to its practical purposes, geology is can be

‾ the Earth materials

‾ the structure & surface features of the earth;

‾ the internal & external processes & forces that act

‾ how these materials, structures, processes, &

‾ the history of Earth

‾ its changing face and structure, and

‾ the changing forms of living things whose remains

‾ examines the origin and evolution of Earth, its

‾ the processes which formed and change it, and

 applies the principles of Pure geology and other

sciences to understand the nature of the Earth (the

investigate composition of the earth

average solar system composition, and

nebular dust becomes kinetic energy & finally

 The Earth is not composed of a homogeneous materials,

rather materials are arranged in a serious of concentric

 So far, the deepest part of the earth that

 By analyzing seismic refraction and seismic reflection

 Indirect methods have been used to study the interior structure

 Scientific understanding of Earth's internal structure is possible

1. Simple Mathematical Computation

modeled to be composed of three layers of different

i. From surface – 40Km:-

 Composed of light silicate materials,

ii. From 40 -3000Km:-

 composed of heavy silicate materials, avg.= 6-7g/cc

iii. From 3000 - the center:-

Meteorite has similar nature to the inner planetary group to

planets are made of different layers of materials.

⟾ this infers the is made up of three different layers.

XENOLITHS:-materials directly comes from the depth

⟾ their composition of the earth of 100Km

⟾ are generally composed of heavy silicates of Mg &

If the earth were uniform, the velocity of these seismic

The velocity of the waves increases & decreases with

concentric layers: the core, the

 made up of light density silicate rocks

density silicate rocks

 solid with some local fluid plume @ its upper part 

presence of the core .

of the earth's surface.

 Both these metals are magnetic, which is why the

mantle & core

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