EEE 498/598

Overview of Electrical
Engineering
Lecture 9: Faraday’s Law Of
Electromagnetic Induction;
Displacement Current;
Complex Permittivity and
Permeability
1
 Lecture 9
Objectives
 To study Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction;
displacement current; and complex
permittivity and permeability.

Lecture
2
9
 Fundamental Laws of
Electrostatics
 Integral form  Differential
form

 E  dl   E  0
D

0D  d s
 qev dv
C
S  V qev
D
E
Lecture
3
9
 Fundamental Laws of
Magnetostatics
 Integral form  Differential
form


C H  dl  S J  d  H  J
s B  d s  B0
0
S B
H
Lecture
4
9
Electrostatic, Magnetostatic, and
Electromagnetostatic Fields
 In the static case (no time variation), the
electric field (specified by E and D) and the
magnetic field (specified by B and H) are
described by separate and independent sets of
equations.
 In a conducting medium, both electrostatic
and magnetostatic fields can exist, and are
coupled through the Ohm’s law (J = E).
Such a situation is called
electromagnetostatic. 5
Lecture
9
 Electromagnetostatic Fields
 In an electromagnetostatic field, the electric
field is completely determined by the
stationary charges present in the system, and
the magnetic field is completely determined
by the current.
 The magnetic field does not enter into the
calculation of the electric field, nor does
the electric field enter into the calculation
of the magnetic field.
Lecture
6
9
 The Three Experimental Pillars
of Electromagnetics
 Electric charges attract/repel each other
as described by Coulomb’s law.
 Current-carrying wires attract/repel each
other as described by Ampere’s law of force.
 Magnetic fields that change with time induce
electromotive force as described by
Faraday’s law.

Lecture
7
9
 Faraday’s
Experiment
toroidal iron
core
switch compass

battery

secondary
primary
coil
coil

Lecture
8
9
 Faraday’s Experiment
(Cont’d)
 Upon closing the switch, current begins to
flow in the primary coil.
 A momentary deflection of the compass
needle indicates a brief surge of current
flowing in the secondary coil.
 The compass needle quickly settles back
to zero.
 Upon opening the switch, another brief
deflection of the compass needle is
observed.
Lecture
9
9
 Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction
 “The electromotive force induced around a
closed loop C is equal to the time rate of
decrease of the magnetic flux linking the
loop.”

S
Vind   d
dt C

Lecture
10
9
Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic
Induction (Cont’d)
  S B  d •S is any surface
bounded by C
s
Vind   E
C dl
integral form
d of Faraday’s
C E  dl  dt  B  d
S law

s Lecture
11
9
 Faraday’s Law
(Cont’d) Stokes’s theorem

 E  dl    E  d s
C S

dt
d S S B
  B  d s   
ta stationary surface S
assuming
 d
s Lecture
12
9
 Faraday’s Law
(Cont’d)
 Since the above must hold for any S, we
have

differential form
of Faraday’s law
 (assuming a
 E   t stationary frame
B of reference)

Lecture
13
9
 Faraday’s Law
(Cont’d)
 Faraday’s law states that a changing
magnetic field induces an electric
field.
 The induced electric field is
non- conservative.

Lecture
14
9
 Lenz’s
Law
 “The sense of the emf induced by the time-
varying magnetic flux is such that any current
it produces tends to set up a magnetic field
that opposes the change in the original
magnetic field.”
 Lenz’s law is a consequence of conservation
of energy.
 Lenz’s law explains the minus sign in
Faraday’s law.
Lecture
15
9
 Faraday’s
Law force induced around
 “The electromotive
a closed loop C is equal to the time rate
of decrease of the magnetic flux linking
the loop.”
Vind   d
dt
 For a coil of N tightly wound
turns
d
V ind N dt
Lecture
16
9
 Faraday’s Law
(Cont’d)
S
 Bd
C
s
•S is any surface
S
bounded by C

Vind  E 

dl
C Lecture
17
9
 Faraday’s Law
(Cont’d)
 Faraday’s law applies to situations
where
 (1) the B-field is a function of time
 (2) ds is a function of time

 (3) B and ds are functions of time

Lecture
18
9
 Faraday’s Law
(Cont’d)
 The induced emf around a circuit can
be separated into two terms:
 (1) due to the time-rate of change of the
B- field (transformer emf)
 (2) due to the motion of the circuit
(motional emf)

Lecture
19
9
 Faraday’s Law
(Cont’d)
d
V
ind  Bd
s dt 
S

B
 S t  d s  v  B

transformer emf
dl
C emf
motional

Lecture
20
9
 Moving Conductor in a
Static Magnetic Field
 Consider a conducting bar moving
with velocity v in a magnetostatic
field: •The magnetic force on an
2
- electron in the conducting
bar is given by
B
v
F m  ev 
+
1 B
Lecture
21
9
Moving Conductor in a Static
Magnetic Field (Cont’d)
 Electrons are pulled
toward end 2.
2
End 2
becomes
-
negatively
B charged and end 1
v becomes +
charged.
+  An electrostatic force
1
of attraction is
established between
the two ends of the
bar. Lecture
22
9
 Moving Conductor in a
Static Magnetic Field
 The(Cont’d)
electrostatic force on an electron
due to the induced electrostatic field
given
is F e  eE
 by
The migration of electrons
stops (equilibrium is
established) when
Fe  F m  E
v  B23
Lecture
9
 Moving Conductor in a Static
Magnetic Field (Cont’d)
 A motional (or “flux cutting”) emf
is produced given by

Vind  v  B

dl
2
Lecture
24
9
 Electric Field in Terms of
Potential Functions
 Electrostatics:

 E  0  E

scalar electric potential

Lecture
25
9
 Electric Field in Terms of
Potential Functions (Cont’d)
 Electrodynamics:
B  
A
B 
 E      A
t t
 A A
  E    0 E  t  
t

Lecture
26
9
 Electric Field in Terms of
Potential Functions (Cont’d)
 Electrodynamics:
vector
magnetic

E    potential
A
t •both of these
potentials are now
functions of time.
scalar
electric
Lecture
potential 27
9
Ampere’s Law and the
Continuity Equation
 The differential form of Ampere’s law
in the static case is
 H  J
 The continuity equation is
qev
J 0
t

Lecture
28
9
Ampere’s Law and the
Continuity Equation
(Cont’d) case, Ampere’s law
 In the time-varying
in the above form is inconsistent with
the continuity equation

  J      H   0

Lecture
29
9
Ampere’s Law and the
Continuity Equation
(Cont’d)
 To resolve this inconsistency,
Maxwell modified Ampere’s law to
read
 D
 H  J c
t

conduction displacement
current density current density

Lecture
30
9
Ampere’s Law and the
Continuity Equation
 The new(Cont’d)
form of Ampere’s law is
consistent with the continuity equation
as well as with the differential form of
Gauss’s law

  Jc 
t
   D       H
 0 qev

Lecture
31
9
 Displacement
Current
 Ampere’s law can be written
as
 H  J c

Jd
D
J d  t  displacement current density (A/m2 )
where

Lecture
32
9
Displacement Current
(Cont’d)
 Displacement current is the type of
current that flows between the plates of a
capacitor.
 Displacement current is the
mechanism which allows
electromagnetic waves to propagate in
a non-conducting medium.
 Displacement current is a consequence
of the three experimental pillars of
electromagnetics. Lecture
33
9
 Displacement Current in a
Capacitor
 Consider a parallel-plate capacitor with plates
of area A separated by a dielectric of
permittivity  and thickness d and connected
to an ac generator:
z
A ic +
z=d
 id v(t)  V0
z=
0
-cos t
Lecture
34
9
 Displacement Current in
a Capacitor (Cont’d)
 The electric field and displacement
flux density in the capacitor is given
by v(t) V
E  a z
ˆ ˆ  a z•assume 0
cos t
d d fringing is

D   E  ˆ z 0 cos t
Vd negligible
a
 The displacement current density
given
is D 
J 
by Vt  aˆ d sin t
d
z
0

Lecture
35
9
 Displacement Current in a
Capacitor (Cont’d)
 The displacement current is given
by
id   A
J  d s  J A   d V0 sin
d d
S
t
dv
 CV0 sin t  C dt  ic conduction
current in
wire

Lecture
36
9
 Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio
 Consider a conducting medium characterized
by conductivity  and permittivity .
 The conduction current density is given by
JcE
 The displacement current density is given
by
Jd  E
t

Lecture
37
9
 Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio (Cont’d)
 Assume that the electric field is a
sinusoidal function of time:
E  E0 cost
 Then,
Jc  E0 cost
Jd  E0
sint
Lecture
38
9
 Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio (Cont’d)
 We
have
J c max 
E 0 E0
Jd max


 Therefor
e Jc 
max 

Jd max

Lecture
39
9
 Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio (Cont’d)
 The value of the quantity  at a
specified frequency determines the
properties of the medium at that given
frequency.
 In a metallic conductor, the displacement
current is negligible below optical
frequencies.
 In free space (or other perfect dielectric),
the conduction current is zero and only
displacement current can exist.
40
Lecture
9
Conduction to Displacement
Current Ratio
(Cont’d)6 Humid Soil ( =r 30,  = 10 -2 S/m)
10

5
10

4
10

10
3 good
2
conductor
10

1
10

 10
0

 10
-1

 -2
10

-3
10

-4
good insulator
10
0 2 4 6 8 10
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Lecture
41
9
 Complex
Permittivity
 In a good insulator, the conduction current (due
to non-zero ) is usually negligible.
 However, at high frequencies, the rapidly varying
electric field has to do work against molecular
forces in alternately polarizing the bound
electrons.
 The result is that P is not necessarily in phase
with E, and the electric susceptibility, and hence
the dielectric constant, are complex.

Lecture
42
9
 Complex Permittivity
(Cont’d)
 The complex dielectric constant can be
a
written
s c     j
 Substituting the complex dielectric constant

into the differential frequency-domain form
of Ampere’s law, we have

 H   E  j E   E
Lecture
43
9
 Complex Permittivity
(Cont’d)
Thus, the imaginary part of the complex
permittivity leads to a volume current
density term that is in phase with the
electric field, as if the material had an
effective
given eff   
conductivity
 by
The power dissipated per unit volume in
the medium is given by
 eff E  E   E
2 2
2

Lecture
44
9
 Complex Permittivity
(Cont’d) 2
 The term  E is the basis for
microwave heating of dielectric
materials.
 Often in dielectric materials, we do not
distinguish between and , and lump
them together in  as •The value of eff is
   eff often determined by
measurements.

Lecture
45
9
 Complex Permittivity
 (Cont’d)
In general, both  and  depend
on frequency, exhibiting resonance
characteristics at several
2.5
frequencies. 1

Imag Part of Dielectric Constant

Real Part of Dielectric Constant

0.9

2 0.8

0.7

1.5 0.6

0.5

1 0.4

0.3

0.5 0.2

0.1

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Normalized Frequency Normalized Frequency

Lecture
46
9
 Complex Permittivity
(Cont’d)
 In tabulating the dielectric properties of
materials, it is customary to specify the real
part of the dielectric constant ( / 0) and the
loss tangent (tan ) defined as


tan  


Lecture
47
9
 Complex
Permeability
 Like the electric field, the magnetic field
encounters molecular forces which require
work to overcome in magnetizing the
material.
 In analogy with permittivity, the
permeability can also be complex

c    j 
Lecture
48
9
Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Form
for Time-Harmonic Fields in Simple
Medium
 E   j   m  H 
Ki
 H   j   e E  J i
qev
E 

qmv
H 
Lecture
49
9
 Maxwell’s Curl Equations for Time-
Harmonic Fields in Simple Medium Using
Complex Permittivity and Permeability
complex
permeability

E j H Ki
 H  j E  J i
complex
permittivity
Lecture
50
9