AIRCRAFT

AERODYNAMICS

IIAE
2016
INTRODUCTION

• Overview of the Module

• Introduction to aerodynamics
Module Aims

• Understand the physics of boundary layers and compressible flows in order to evaluate the flow
parameters and aerodynamic forces around a wing.

Analyse aerodynamic forces encountered in aircraft flight.

Understand the growth of boundary layer and viscous drag.
 Module Content

• Behaviour of static & moving

air
• Boundary layer theory
• Wind tunnel testing
• Aircraft Lift
• Aircraft Drag
• High Speed Flight
Aim
To understand the characteristics of
atmosphere:
•Pressure
•Temperature
•Density

Understand the properties of air flow

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is
used to standardize aircraft performance to a
reference condition for assessment and
comparison.
 The Atmosphere

• Knowledge of the atmosphere is an integral part

of design as we consider the aircraft interaction
with the surrounding air.
• The atmosphere, in the classical definition up to
40-kilometer (km) altitude, is dense (continuum).
• After substantial data generation, a consensus was
reached to obtain the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) which is in static condition and
follows hydrostatic relations.
• ISA is used to standardize aircraft performance to
a reference condition for assessment and
comparison.
The Atmosphere

• Pressure and density decreases as altitude increase, which

can be expressed through the use of hydrostatic equations.
• Temperature decreases linearly up to 11 km (~36000 ft) at a
lapse rate of 6.5◦K/km, then holds constant at 216.66◦K until
it reaches 20 km (~65000 ft), at which it starts increasing
linearly at a rate of 4.7◦K/km up to 47 km.
• The 11 km altitude is called the tropopause; below the
tropopause is the troposphere and above it is the stratosphere
, extending up to 47 km (~154000 ft).

NB notice how Speed of sound is symmetrical to the

Temperature line
 Density of Air
The air pressure decreases with increasing altitude within both the troposphere and the stratosphere.
•Local weather conditions will also affect the atmospheric pressure and temperature.
•Both temperature and pressure are functions of density.
According to the Ideal Gas Equation:
Aerodynamic
force is directly
related to the air
density flowing
Therefore, density = past the body

p=staticpressure(N/m2),T=statictemperature(K),
R=Gasconstant=287J/kg.K
1.Calculate the density of air at 6000m altitude using the Ideal Gas Equation with values of atmospheric pressure and
temperature taken from ISA tables. Compare your answer with the value of density quoted in the ISA tables.

According to the Ideal Gas Equation

Therefore, density =

p=static pressure(N/m2),T=static temperature(K),R=Gas constant=287J/kg.K

ρ=
 
 Density of Air

Lift and drag depend linearly on the density of the air.

In the atmosphere, air density decreases as altitude increases. This explains why airplanes have a
flight ceiling, an altitude above which it cannot fly.
As an aeroplane ascends, a point is eventually reached where there just is not enough air mass to
generate enough lift to overcome the aeroplane's weight.
The relation between altitude and density is a fairly complex exponential that has been determined by
measurements in the atmosphere.
 ISA Table
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) defines standard day ambient temperature and ambient pressure up to an altitude
of 30500m (100066feet). The density of the air is usually included in absolute terms and in relative terms (absolute density
divided by the density for air at ISA sea level).
 Measurement of Aircraft Altitude

In the troposphere
H=height(m)
To=288.15K
Lo=temperature lapse rate=-0.0065K/m
R=287J/kg.K=0.287KJ/Kg.K
go=9.80665m/s2
p=local pressure(kN/m2)
po=101.325kN/m2

1.Use the appropriate equation to calculate the altitude of an aircraft when the local static pressure is measured to
be 61.64kPa.Confirm your answer by reference to the ISA tables.
In the lowerstratosphere

p11= static pressure at 11000 m altitude

T11= static temperature at 11000 m altitude

 Solution
NB. We can tell from the static pressure that the altitude
required is in the troposphere H = height (m)
In the troposphere To = 288.15K
Lo = temperature lapse rate = -0.0065K/m
R = 287J/kg.K = 0.287KJ/Kg.K
go = 9.80665 m/s2
p = local pressure (kN/m2)
po = 101.325kN/m2

1. Use the appropriate equation to calculate the altitude of an aircraft when the local static pressure is
measured to be 61.64kPa. Confirm your answer by reference to the ISA tables.
 Pressure.
Static pressure is exerted on a surface by a stationary fluid due to the energy stored in the
fluid which causes its molecules to move around in a random manner.

 The magnitude of the pressure exerted is a function of two main variables.;

 The number of molecules present in a fixed volume of a fluid-i.e. the density of the
fluid.
 The amount of molecular movement which is itself influenced by the temperature of the
fluid.

 If the fluid is moving then an additional dynamic pressure is produced.

 Pressure
Newton’s 2 Law “F=ma” can be applied to a particle of fluid to establish are relationship between the change in velocity
nd

and the change in pressure of that fluid.

The result of the is analysis is the Euler Equation:
dp/ds, du/ds, dz/ds are the change in
Pressure
Velocity
Height
(in gravitational field)

NB
Ignore gravitational effects ie g=0. If its constant means no rate of change with respect to time
therefore the d/ds cancels out.
Bernoulli equation
 Bernoulli’s equation

Bernoulli’s theorem states that, for streamline fluid flow, the sum of the pressures exerted remains constant.

Hence, if the total pressure remains constant then the static pressure must reduce as the dynamic pressure
increases, due to the fluid velocity, increase
 Continuity, Euler, and Bernoulli’s Equations

Continuity Equation.

ρA u= constant Assumptions: steady flow.

Euler’s Equation

dp= -ρudu Assumptions: steady, inviscid flow. Ignoring gravity and friction

Bernoulli’s Equation

Assumptions: steady, inviscid, incompressible flow . along a

streamline
Total and Static air pressure

The total pressure can be felt by a

surface exposed to the full force of the
flowing fluid.

Under such conditions the fluid flow is

reduced to zero velocity, i.e. it
stagnates,

The term stagnation pressure is an

alternative expression to total pressure.
 Measuring speed of flowing air

Hence

The most common method of determining the speed of a

moving air flow is to measure the pressure difference created by
the motion. This is done using a pitot-static tube

However, the Bernoulli equation assumes incompressible

flow.
A Pitot static tube facing into a flow in a wind tunnel indicates a pressure difference of 12kPa. If the local static
pressure and temperature of the air are
1.1bar and 310K respectively, then use the Bernoulli equation to calculate the velocity of the air?(139.33m/s)

Hence
 Compressibility
In a liquid, the molecular spacing is essentially constant, so a liquid can be regarded as essentially
incompressible with a constant value of density at any pressure

Gas molecules are more widely spaced and free to move; hence the volume of a fixed mass of gas will vary
enormously with pressure and temperature according to pV = mRT.

A gas is therefore regarded as a compressible fluid with density(m/V) a function of pressure and
temperature
 Compressibility

Air may only be regarded as incompressible when flowing at low speeds and when density changes are
small.
•For higher speeds(M>0.2)the theories of compressible flow must be applied.
 Speed of Sound

Sound is propagated through a fluid, such as air, by means of a succession of very small pressure waves.

If the fluid is moving faster than the speed at which the pressure changes can effectively provide an advance
warning of disturbances ahead, then a shock wave is produced.

The relationship between the velocity of a fluid and the speed at which these pressure waves are propagated
through the fluid is very significant in the analysis of high speed flow behaviour.
 Speed of Sound
 
For any fluid:
Speed of propagation of a very small pressure wave through the fluid=Speed of sound in the fluid
=Square root(K/),
Where K=Bulk modulus of elasticity for the fluid,ρ=Density of fluid
•For a (thermally perfect)gas:

Speed of propagation of a very small pressure wave through the gas=Speed of sound in the gas
=Square root(ϒRT),
Where ϒ =ratio of specific heats for the gas=Cp/Cv, R=Gas constant=287J/kg.K
T=static temperature of the gas
M=c/a where M=Mach number, c=fluid velocity, a=speed of sound for the fluid
a=square root (ϒRT)

M=c/a where M=Mach number, c=fluid velocity, a=speed of

sound for the fluid
a=Sqaure root (ϒRT)
 Question
Calculate the Mach number for the free stream of air approaching an aircraft at 432 knots. As sum ethe ambient air
temperature and pressure are ISA6000m.(0.7)
 Speed of Sound

Ratio = object speed/ speed of sound = Mach number

Hypersonic
Mach > 5

Supersonic
Mach > 1

Sub sonic
Mach < 1
High speed flow
•The stagnation temperature for a flowing gas remains constant according to energy flow
equation (continuity equation due to conservation of mass). ρA u = constant
•Therefore, the stagnation pressure produced when the gas is brought to rest can be derived.
•The assuming that deceleration process is occurring with the gas compressed isontropically.

Stagnation point V= u = 0
A process with no heat addition or extraction is called adiabatic
A process with no frictional or dissipative effects is called reversible
A process which is both adiabatic and reversible is called isentropic
 High speed flow
For air it can be assumed that: Cp= 1.005 kJ/kg.K, ϒ= 1.4, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K

The assuming that deceleration process is occurring with the gas compressed isontropically
according to:

Where

But;

But;

Where ϒ = ratio of specific heats for the gas = Cp/ Cv, R = Gas constant = 287 J/kg.K
T = static temperature of the gas
 High speed flow

Re arrange for Mach number;

Remember Mach number

Fluid velocity

This method can be used for high speed subsonic flow only.
A different calibration equation is used for supersonic flow
 High speed flow

For air it can be assumed that: Cp= 1.005 kJ/kg.K, ϒ= 1.4, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
Calculate the stagnation pressure for the free stream of air approaching an aircraft at 432knots. Assume the ambient air
temperature and pressure are ISA6000m.
a)Use Bernoulli equation to calculate stagnation pressure(63.467kPa)
b)Use isentropic compression expression to calculate stagnation pressure.(65.563kPa)
c)Calculate the %error introduced by using the Bernoulli equation.(3.2%)