Advanced Power System (EL 701)

• Section 2 : Power Quality

• References (Power Quality):
1. Power Quality By C. Sankaran, CRC Publication.
2. Instantaneous Power Theory and Application Power Conditioning By.
H.Akagi : IEEE press, A John Willey Sons
3. Electrical Power Systems Quality

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 PWYIC
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 Introduction to Power Quality
• Power Quality:

• As per IEEE1100:“ The concept of powering and grounding sensitive electronic

equipment in a manner suitable for the equipment.”

• “Power quality is a set of electrical boundaries that allows a piece of equipment to

function in its intended manner without significant loss of performance or life
expectancy.”

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 Important Definitions
• Coupling :
Process by which energy or electrical noise in one circuit can be transferred to
another circuit that may or may not be electrically connected to it.

• Distortion :
Qualitative term indicating the deviation
of a periodic wave from its ideal waveform
characteristics.

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 Important Definitions
• Distortion factor (%) : RMS of harmonic content
RMS of the fundamental content
Of a periodic wave. Also known as THD.

• Flicker :
Variation of input voltage sufficient in duration to allow visual observation of
a change in electric light source intensity. Quantitatively, flicker may be
expressed as the change in voltage over nominal expressed as a percent.
Eg. , V=120 volts……. 125 volts……… 117 volts
f , is calculated as f = 100 × (125 – 117)/120 = 6.66%.

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 Important Definitions
• Grounding :

Conducting connection by which an

electrical circuit or equipment is
connected to the earth or to some
conducting body of relatively large
extent that serves in place of the earth.
In Figure two conductive bodies are
bonded and connected to ground.

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 Important Definitions
• Harmonic :
Sinusoidal component of a periodic wave having a frequency that is an integral
multiple of the fundamental frequency.
Fundamental Frequency 50 Hz
2nd harmonic 100 Hz
3rd Harmonic 150 Hz

• Impulse :
Traditionally used to indicate a short duration overvoltage event with certain rise
and fall characteristics. Standards have moved toward including the term
impulse in the category of transients.

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 Important Definitions
• Inrush :
Large current that a load draws when initially turned on.
Eg. Induction motor starting.

• Noise :
Electrical noise is unwanted electrical
signals that produce undesirable effects in
the circuits of control systems in which
they occur.

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 Important Definitions
• Linear loads :
Electrical load which in steady-state operation presents essentially constant
impedance to the power source throughout the cycle of applied voltage. A purely
linear load has only the fundamental component of the current present. Eg.
Electric heaters, induction motors etc.

• Nonlinear load :
Electrical load that draws currents discontinuously or whose impedance varies
during each cycle of the input AC voltage waveform. Eg. VFD, Battery
Chargers, power electronic devices etc.

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 Important Definitions
• Interruption :

Complete loss of voltage or current for a time period.

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 Important Definitions
• Power factor (displacement) : fundamental wave
active power (W)
apparent power (VA)

• Pure sinusoidal
Þ Only fundamental component
Þ Cos ( voltage^current)
Þ Cos Θ

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 Important Definitions
• Power factor (total) :
total active power (W)
total apparent power (VA)
of the composite wave, including all harmonic frequency components.

• Composite wave
Þ Harmonic frequency component
Þ Total p.f. < displacement p.f

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 Important Definitions
• Sag :
RMS reduction in the AC voltage at power frequency from half of a
cycle to a few seconds’ duration.
sag lasting for 4 cycles

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 Important Definitions
• Swell :
RMS increase in AC voltage at power frequency from half of a cycle
to a few seconds’ duration.
A swell of 2.5 cycles.

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 Power Quality Issues

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 Power Frequency Disturbance

• Power frequency disturbances :

Low frequency phenomena
Þ Voltage Sag / Swell

source or load generated due to faults or switching operations in a power system.

The end results depends upon susceptibility of electrical equipment

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 Power System Transients

• Power system transients :

fast, short-duration events
• Oscillatory transients: medium frequency transients (500 Hz – 2kHz)
Causes: Travelling waves from lightning impulses, capacitor switching
transients
• High frequency transients: >2kHz.
• Causes:
Switching on secondary systems, Electrical faults on transmission lines.

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 Power System Harmonics

• Power system harmonics :

low-frequency phenomena
characterized by waveform distortion, which introduces harmonic frequency
components.
Voltage and current harmonics have undesirable effects on power system
operation and power system components.
Causes…………?
Effects………….?

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 Grounding and Bonding

• Grounding and Bonding :

3 reasons

1.Safety
2.to provide a low-impedance path for the flow of fault current in case of a ground
fault
3.to create a ground reference plane for sensitive electrical equipment - Signal
reference ground (SRG)

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 Electromagnetic Interference
Radio Interference
• Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
interaction between electric and magnetic fields
and sensitive electronic circuits and devices.
high-frequency phenomenon

• Radio frequency interference

interaction between conducted or radiated radio frequency fields and sensitive
data and communication equipment
EMI and RFI shielding……..

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 Electromagnetic Interference
• Electrostatic discharge:
One of the causes of ESD events is static electricity. Static electricity is often
generated through tribocharging.
Eg. rubbing plastic comb against dry hair,
ascending from a fabric car seat,
removing some types of plastic packaging.
Another cause of ESD damage is through electrostatic induction. This occurs
when an electrically charged object is placed near a conductive object isolated
from ground.

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 Power Factor
• Power factor :
low power factor is responsible for equipment unsatisfactory operation.
power factor is an economic issue in the operation of a power system.
Penalty for low power factor.

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 Susceptibility Criteria
• Cause and effect
• Treatment criteria
• Power quality weak link
• Interdependence
• Stress - strain criteria
• Power quality VS Equipment immunity

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 Causes and Effect
• Cause and effect -> Power Quality and ability.
• Ability of equipment to perform in the installed environment indicates its
immunity…..
1. equipment immunity < power quality boundary.
2. equipment immunity > power quality boundary.

• Objective of power quality study

• 2 methods for solving power quality problem

A. make power quality contour smaller => it falls within the immunity contour
B. make immunity contour larger than power quality contour
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 Causes and Effect
• Every time Power quality and immunity contours are not two dimensional….
• At that time aim = fit the power quality mass into immunity mass

• Complicated why?
• Often Quantity making the mass are interdependent……

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 Contour

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 Treatment Criteria
• Power quality problem solution
requires knowledge of which piece
or components are susceptible.
• Try to treat --> susceptible
Subcomponent.
• Always Comp. treatment ?
• Eg. If the power quality problem was
Due to ground loop potential,
then component treatment may not
produce required results
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 Power Quality Weak Link
• reliability of a machine -> susceptibility of the component that has
the smallest immunity mass.
• a single component can render the entire machine extremely susceptible.
• Eg. large adjustable speed drive (in a paper mill) shutting down
Þ production loss, along with considerable time and expense to clean up the
debris left by the interruption of production.
Þ Problem was traced to an electromechanical relay in drive unit.
• Cost of relay VS cost of production loss.

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 Interdependence
• Two or more machines :
operating individually => satisfactory operation
Together in a power system => do not function properly

• Causes:
Voltage fluctuations, waveform notching, ground loops, conducted or radiated
electromagnetic interference, transient impulse.

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 Stress - strain criteria
• Structural system:
Loading beyond a certain point
produces permanent deformity.

• Electrical system:
Loads that produce power quality anomalies can
be added to a power system, to a point.
• Rigid power systems can usually withstand a
higher number of power quality offenders than
weak system.
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 Power quality VS equipment immunity
• All devices are susceptible to power quality; no devices are 100% immune.
• Every power system have power quality anomalies to some degree.
• The challenge, therefore, is to create a balance.

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 Power quality VS equipment immunity
Index Description Examples
Equipment Immunity Indices
I High immunity Motors, transformers, incandescent lighting, heating loads,
electromechanical relays
II Moderate immunity Electronic ballasts, solid-state relays,
programmable logic controllers, adjustable
speed drives
III Low immunity Signal, communication, data processing
equipment; electronic medical equipment
Power Quality Indices
I Low power quality Service entrance switchboard,
problems lighting power distribution panel
II Moderate power HVAC power panels
quality problems
III High power quality Panels supplying adjustable speed drives, elevators, large motors
problems

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 Responsibility of suppliers and users
of electrical power
• Most electrical equipment is designed to operate within a voltage of ±5% of
nominal
• urban areas => the utility frequencies are rarely outside ±0.1 Hz
of the nominal frequency.
• Utilities often perform switching operations in electrical substations to support the
loads. These can generate transient disturbances at levels that will have an impact
on electrical equipment.
• Issues : energy conservation, harmonic current injection, power factor, and surge
current demands

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 Responsibility of suppliers and users
of electrical power
• Energy conservation is one means of ensuring an adequate supply of electrical
power and at the same time realize an ecological balance.
• Utilities are placing restrictions on the amount of harmonic current that the user
may transmit into the power source
• User should also be concerned about power factor.
• Power suppliers expect a power factor of 0.95 or higher from industrial and
commercial users of power
• If power factor < 0.95 => penalty.

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 Power quality Standards
• Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE); Piscataway, NJ;
• http://www.ieee.org
• IEEE 644 : Standard Procedure for Measurement of Power Frequency Electric
and Magnetic Fields from AC Power Lines
• IEEE C63.12: Recommended Practice for Electromagnetic Compatibility Limits
• IEEE 518 : Guide for the Installation of Electrical Equipment to Minimize
Electrical Noise Inputs to Controllers from External Sources
• IEEE 519 : Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electrical Power Systems
• IEEE 1100 :Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive
electronic Equipment
• IEEE 1159 :Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality
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 Power quality Standards
• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC); Geneva, Switzerland;
• http://www.iec.ch
• IEC/TR3 61000-2-1 : Electromagnetic Compatibility — Environment
• IEC/TR3 61000-3-6 : Electromagnetic Compatibility — Limits
• IEC 61000-4-7 : Electromagnetic Compatibility — Testing and
Measurement Techniques — General Guides on
Harmonics and Interharmonics Measurements
and Instrumentation

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 References
• Power Quality by C. Sankaran

• Edmodo group : Power Quality

• Web: www.mayurvaghela.weebly.com

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