6.

5 Neurons and synapses

Essential idea: Neurons transmit the

message, synapses modulate the message.

The image shows a tiny segment of a human brain the lines

show neurons and the dots show synapses. The image is
intended to illustrate both the how complex even a small
mammal's brain is and additionally how important the synapses
between neurons are; it is the synapses that drive
communication and conscious thought. With the exception of
the memory centre the number of cells in the human brain does
not increase after birth, what increase is the number of
connections and hence synapses between neurons.
 6.5: Neurons and Synapses
Nature of science: Cooperation and collaboration between groups of scientists—biologists are
contributing to research into memory and learning. (4.3)

Understandings:
• Neurons transmit electrical impulses.
• The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory conduction.
• Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential.
• An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.
• Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of neurons.
• Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents that cause each successive part of the axon to reach
the threshold potential.
• Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells.
• When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse.
• A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached.
Applications and skills:
• Application: Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine by neurons at synapses.
• Application: Blocking of synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects by binding of neonicotinoid
pesticides to acetylcholine receptors.
• Skill: Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials.
Guidance:
• The details of structure of different types of neuron are not needed.
• Only chemical synapses are required, not electrical, and they can simply be referred to as synapses.
Understandings
Statement Guidance
The details of structure of different types of
6.5.U1 Neurons transmit electrical impulses.
neuron are not needed.
The myelination of nerve fibres allows for
6.5.U2
saltatory conduction.
Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions
6.5.U3 across their membranes to generate a resting
potential.
An action potential consists of depolarization
6.5.U4
and repolarization of the neuron.
Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated
6.5.U5
along the axons of neurons.
Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of
6.5.U6 local currents that cause each successive part
of the axon to reach the threshold potential.
Only chemical synapses are required, not
Synapses are junctions between neurons and
6.5.U7 electrical, and they can simply be referred to
between neurons and receptor or effector cells.
as synapses.
When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they
6.5.U8
release a neurotransmitter into the synapse.
A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold
6.5.U9
potential is reached.
Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine by
6.5.A1
neurons at synapses.
Blocking of synaptic transmission at cholinergic
6.5.A2 synapses in insects by binding of neonicotinoid
pesticides to acetylcholine receptors.
Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing resting
6.5.S1
potentials and action potentials.
6.5.U1 Neurons transmit electrical impulses.

Schwan
cell
6.5.U5 Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of neurons.

http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential_s
hort.swf

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp44/4402s.swf
6.5.S1 Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials.

Investigate how neurons generate electrical impulses

Use the PhET simulation to
build an understanding of
resting and action
potentials and how they
relate to the voltage
changes in the axon
membrane.

The neuron lab worksheet

activity acts as a guide for
the investigation:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/cont
ributions/view/3608

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/neuron
6.5.U3 Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential.

-70mV

Plasma membrane is 50 times

more permeable to K+ ions
than Na+

n.b. proteins inside the nerve fiber are negatively charged which increases the charge imbalance.
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.
is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization) of the membrane
Action potential potential as an impulse travels along it.

1 The sodium-potassium 2 In response to a stimulus (e.g. change in membrane

pump (Na+/K+ pump)
maintains the
electrochemical gradient of
the resting potential. Some
K+ leaks out of the neuron
(making the membrane
potential negative, -70mv).
potential) in an adjacent section of the neuron some
voltage gated Na+ channels open and sodium enters
the neuron by diffusion. If a sufficient change in
membrane potential is achieved (threshold potential)
all the voltage gated Na+ channels open. The entry of
Na+ causes the membrane potential to become
positive (depolarisation)
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.
is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization) of the membrane
Action potential potential as an impulse travels along it.

3 The depolarisation of the
membrane potential causes the
voltage gated Na+ channels to close
and the voltage gated K+ channels
open. K+ diffuses out of the neuron
rapidly and the membrane
potential becomes negative again
(repolarisation)
4 Before the neuron is ready to propagate another impulse the
distribution of Na+ (out) and K+ (in) needs to be reset by
the Na+/K+ pump, returning the neuron to resting potential. This
enforced rest (refractory period) ensures impulses can only travel in a
single direction.
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.
is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization) of the membrane
Action potential potential as an impulse travels along it.

From McGraw Hill: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/

http://goo.gl/tI2MD
http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/patestas/animations/actionp.html
6.5.U6 Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents that cause each successive part of the axon
to reach the threshold potential.

Propagation of a nerve impulse in un-myelinated axons

Cell body

http://highered.mheducation.com/ol
c/dl/120107/bio_d.swf
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.

More action potential resources:

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/12
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/images/nerveimpulse.swf 0107/anim0013.swf

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webco
ntent/animations/content/actionpot http://www.blackwellpublishing.co
ential.html m/patestas/animations/channel.ht
http://www.psych.ualberta.ca/~ITL/ap/ap.htm ml
 Data-based questions, textbook pg. 324
• Skill: Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials.
• Data-based questions, textbook pg. 324
6.5.U2 The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory conduction.

myelination and saltatory conduction

As myelin acts as an insulator myelinated
axons only allow action potentials to occur
at the unmyelinated nodes of Ranvier.

This forces the the action potential to jump* from

node to node (saltatory conduction).
*The jump along the axon is actually just the
The result of this is that the impulse travels much more
very rapid conduction inside the myelinated
quickly (up to 200 m/s) along myelinated axons compared to portion of the axon.
unmyelinated axons (2 m/s).

Saltatory conduction from node to node also

reduces degradation of the impulse and hence
allows the impulse to travel longer distances
than impulses in unmyelinated axons.

The myelin sheath also reduces energy expenditure over the

axon as the quantity of sodium and potassium ions that
need to be pumped to restore resting potential is less than
that of a un-myelintated axon
6.5.U7 Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells.

To function the nervous system needs to receive input/stimuli

and then to coordinate a response to it.

For this to happen impulses need to travel from sensory

receptor cells via a series of nerve cells to effectors, which
are commonly muscles and glands.

There are junctions between each cell called

synapses across which impulses cannot travel.

A special group of molecules called neurotransmitters move

across the synapse to effect an impulse in the adjacent cell.
6.5.U7 Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells.

http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/synaptic.swf
6.5.U8 When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse.
6.5.U9 A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached.
6.5.U8 When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse.
6.5.U9 A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached.
6.5.U8 When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse.
6.5.U9 A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached.
6.5.A1 Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine by neurons at synapses.

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter used in many synapses through the nervous system

One use is at the neuromuscular junction, i.e. it is the molecule that motor neurons
release to activate muscles. Interfering with the action of acetylcholine can cause a
range of effect from paralysis to convulsions.
6.5.A2 Blocking of synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects by binding of neonicotinoid pesticides
to acetylcholine receptors.
Nature of science: Cooperation and collaboration between groups of scientists - biologists are contributing to
research into memory and learning. (4.3)

Nowadays scientists often work in

multidisciplinary teams for example the Centre for
Neural Circuits and Behaviour (CNCB)

The aim of the CNCB is to understand how

intelligence emerges from the physical interaction
of nerve cells.
Studying the brain
from this top-
down approach to
answer such
fundamental Gero Miesenböck FRS
Waynflete Professor of Martin Booth Tim Vogels
questions requires Physiology, Wellcome Professor of Sir Henry Dale Fellow
techniques and Investigator Engineering Science (physicsist)
understanding
from a range of
disciplines. Scott Waddell
Professor of
The Matrix (Trailer) Neurobiology,
Monkey Brain-Powered R Stephen Goodwin Wellcome Trust Senior
obots Professor of Korneel Hens Research Fellow in
Neurogenetics, Group Leader Basic Biomedical
Wellcome Investigator (Biochemist) Sciences
Data-based questions, textbook pg. 325-6