POWER ELECTRONICS

Submitted To: Dr. M. Rafique Naich

Group Members:
• Sibghatullah Siyal K17ES09 (G.L)

• Naimatullah Shaikh K17ES42 (A.G.L)

• Rifaqat Ali K17ES23

Course Contents

Section I Section II Section III

●
Solid State Devices. ●
Thyristors, Its Converters,
●
their Topologies.
Inverters.
●
●
Power Devices, their design, Operations,
Rectifiers.
●

Operations, Design, VI Curves. Cycloconverters.

●

VI Curves. ●
Triggering Circuits. AC Voltage Regulators.
●
SECTION I
Introduction:
• Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical power by power
semiconductor devices wherein these devices operate as switches.

• Power Electronics is combination of Power, Electronics and Control.

• Control deals with steady state and dynamic characteristics of closed-loop systems.

• Power deals with static and rotating power equipment for Generation, Transmission and
Distribution of Power.

• Electronics deals with solid state devices and circuits for Signal Processing to meet desired
control Objective.
Relationship of Power Electronics with Power, Control and Electronics
Applications Of Power Electronics:
Comparison B/W Small Signal Devices and Power Devices

Small Signal Devices Power Devices

V = few Volts – 5V. V = 5 Volts – kV.

I = nA - mA. I = mA - kA.

P = mW. P = kW.
Diode:
• Diodes are the simplest semiconductor devices having only two layers, two terminals and
one junction. The ordinary signal diodes have a junction formed by p type semiconductor
and n type semiconductor the lead joining p type is called anode and the other side lead
joining the n type is called cathode.

• The figure below depicts the structure of an ordinary diode and its symbol.
Power Diode:
• Power diodes are also similar to signal diodes but have a little difference in its construction.

• In signal diodes the doping level of both P and N sides is same and hence we get a PN
Junction, but in power diodes we have a junction formed between a heavily doped P + and a
lightly doped N– layer which is epitaxial grown on a heavily doped N+ layer.

• The N– layer is the key feature of the power diode which makes it suitable for high power
applications. This layer is very lightly doped, almost intrinsic.

• Due to its light doping concentration, depletion region or the space charge region helps the
diode to block larger reverse biased voltage and hence have a greater breakdown voltage.
Power Diode Contd.
• Hence the structure of Power Diode looks as shown in the figure below.
V-I Characteristics of Power Diodes:
• In power diodes high forward current leads to high Ohmic drop which dominates the
exponential growth and the curve increases almost linearly.

• The maximum reverse voltage that the diode can withstand is depicted by V RRM, i.e. peak
reverse repetitive voltage. Above this voltage the reverse current becomes very high abruptly,
it may get destroyed. This voltage may also be called as peak inverse voltage (PIV).
Power Diode ON/OFF Characteristics:
Reverse Recovery Characteristics of Diode:
• Whenever the diode is switched off the current decays from I F to zero and further continues
in reverse direction owing to the charges stored in the space charge region and the
semiconductor region.

• This reverse current attains a peak IRR and again start approaching zero value and finally the
diode is off after time trr. This time is defined as reverse recovery time.

• It is defined as time between the instant forward current reaches zero and the instant the
reverse current decays to 25% of IRR. After this time the diode is said to attain its reverse
blocking capability.
Reverse Recovery Contd.
• From the Figure we see that,

t rr = ta + tb

ta → time when charge from depletion region is removed.

tb → time when charge from semiconductor region is removed.
Types of Power Diode:
• The power diodes can be classified into following categories, summarized in the table
below,
Power Transistor:
• Power BJT is used to operate at high current and power.

• It offers high resistance during off state and provide low On state losses.

• Since, it handles high current and voltage, so heat sinks are used to control the heating effect.

• Temperature rise can affect device performance.

Input-Output Characteristics of Power Transistor
Transfer Characteristics of Power Transistor
Switching Characteristics of Power Transistor
Safe Operating Areas of Transistor:
• Safe operating area of transistor specifies the safe operating limits of Collector current I C to
Collector Emitter Voltage VCE.

• For reliable operation IC and VCE must lie within this area.

• There are two types of Safe Operating areas of Power Transistor.

1. Forward Bias Safe Operating Area (SBSOA).

2. Reverse Bias Safe Operating Area (RBSOA).

Forward Bias Safe Operating Area (SBSOA)
• Since Ic x VCE = Pout, each transistor can operate within described power range.

• If Pout is increased, it may damaged the device, thus power range is kept constant by varying
either Ic or VCE.
Reverse Bias Safe Operating Area (RBSOA)
• During reverse bias IB = 0 or-ve pulse, Transistor is in turn off mode and subjected to high I C
and VCE.

• As blocking area decreases its capacity to withstand the reverse voltage also decreases.
Transistor As Switch:
Transistor As Switch Contd.
• Maximum Collector Current in active region obtained when VCB = 0 and VCE = VBE.
MOSFET:
• MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

• There are two types of MOSFET.

1. Depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET).

2. Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET).

• In D-MOSFET channel is extended between contacts and current can be depleted or enhanced
depends upon supply. It works in both Enhancement as well as Depletion mode.

• In E-MOSFET channel is not available, it is generated in between drain and source through
external voltage. It works in only Enhancement Mode.
Planar E-MOSFET:
• In planar E-MOSFET there is high on power losses because there is no connection between
Drain and Source.

• It gives High on state resistance, that produces higher power dissipation. Hence its
applications are limited in low power applications.
Power MOSFET:
• Modification in design of planar E-MOSFET is necessary to be used in high power applications.

• In power MOSFET on n+ substrate, n- layer is epitaxially grown. Reverse blocking capacity is

determined by thickness of n- layer.

• Metal is etched into other side of n+ layer to form drain contact.

• In n- layer, p-layer is diffused and further into p-layer n+ layer is diffused and SiO2 layer is
attached then etched on the metal contacts to form “Source” and “gate” connections.

• Its called as VD-MOSFET “Vertically Diffused MOSFET.”

Power MOSFET Contd.
• If VGS = 0, then n- and p junction are reversed biased due to V DD.

• As VGS is applied, it induces n-channel in the P-region thus allowing ID to flow.

• The thickness of n-channel can be controlled through VGS thus controlling ID.
Power MOSFET Transfer & Output Characteristics:
Power MOSFET Switching Characteristics:
 Comparison B/W BJT and MOSFET

BJT MOSFET
• Bipolar.
• Unipolar.
• Low I/P Impedance.
• High I/P Impedance.
• Low On state Losses.
• High On state Losses.
• Low Switching Frequency.
• High Switching Frequency.
• Current Controlled.
• Voltage Controlled.
• -ve Temperature Coefficient.
• +ve Temperature Coefficient.
But What we Required?

• High Input Impedance.

• Low On State Losses.

• High Switching Frequency.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT):
• Power MOSFET and Power BJT were common in use in power electronic applications. Both
of these devices possessed some advantages and simultaneously some disadvantages.

• There was need for such a device which had goodness of both Power MOSFET and Power.

• IGBT has PMOSFET like input characteristics and Power BJT like output characteristics, its
symbol is also an amalgamation of symbols of BJT & MOSFET. The terminals of IGBT are
Gate, Collector and Emitter.
Structure of IGBT:
• The structure of IGBT is very much similar to that of Power MOSFET, except one layer
known as injection layer which is p+ unlike n+ substrate in Power MOSFET. This injection
layer is the key to the superior characteristics of IGBT.
Equivalent Model of IGBT:
• Upon careful observation of the structure, we’ll find that there exists an n-channel MOSFET
and two BJTs- Q1 and Q2 as shown in the figure. Q1 is p+n–p BJT and Q2 is n–pn + BJT.

• The two transistor back to back connection forms a parasitic Thyristor as shown in the
above figure.
Transfer Characteristics of IGBT:
Output Characteristics of IGBT:
Switching Characteristics of IGBT:
Applications of IGBT:
• Inverters.

• Cycloconverters.

• High Frequency & High Power.

• AC voltage Regulator.

• Switch Mode Power Supply.

• Industrial Heating.

• Space Applications.
SECTION II
Thyristor:
• Thyristor is four layer, three terminal device.

• Basically Thyristor denotes family of Semiconductor devices used for power control in AC
and DC systems.

• The semiconductor devices which have identical characteristics with Thyristor are SCR,
GTO, DIAC, TRIAC, PUT, RCT etc.

• Thyristor has Characteristics similar to Thyratron Tube. But from constructional view, it
belongs to Transistor family.

• The name Thyristor is combination of THYRatron and TransISTOR. This means Thyristor
is semiconductor device like transistor having characteristics similar to Thyratron.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR):
• One of the oldest member of Thyristor family is SCR. At present use of SCR is so vast that
word Thyristor has become synonyms with SCR.

• SCR is a three-terminal, four-layer semiconductor device consisting of alternate layers of p-

type and n-type material. Hence it has three PN junctions J1, J2 and J3. The figure below
shows an SCR with the layers p-n-p-n. The device has terminals Anode(A), Cathode(K) and
the Gate(G).
Reverse Blocking Mode of SCR:
• In this mode, the SCR is reverse biased by connecting its anode terminal (A) to negative end
and the cathode terminal (K) to the positive end of the battery. This leads to the reverse
biasing of the junctions J1 and J3, which in turn prohibits the flow of current through the
device, in spite of the fact that the junction J2 remains in forward biased condition.

• In this state, the SCR behaves as a typical diode.

Forward Blocking Mode of SCR:
• In this mode of SCR anode terminal (A) is connected to the positive and cathode terminal
(K) to the negative terminal of the battery, as shown in the figure below. Under this
condition, the junction J1 and J3 get forward biased while junction J2 gets reverse biased.

• Here also current cannot pass through the Thyristor except the tiny current flowing as
saturation current.
Forward Conduction Mode of SCR
• SCR can be made conduct by either of below method:

1. By increasing the positive voltage applied at anode terminal (A) beyond the Break Over
Voltage, VB.

2. By applying positive voltage at gate terminal (G). SCR can be turned on by providing small
positive voltage at the gate terminal, as shown in the figure below.
VI Characteristics of Thyristor:
• IH = when IA goes below IH, Thyristor goes to Forward blocking state.

• IL = Latching current = min amount of current required to keep Thyristor in on state.

Thyristor Turn ON Methods:
a. Forward Voltage Triggering.

b. Gate Triggering.

c. dv/dt Triggering.

d. Temperature Triggering.

e. Light Triggering.
Two Transistor Analogy Of Thyristor:
• It is seen that a single SCR is the combination of one PNP transistor (Q1) and one NPN
transistor (Q2). Here, the emitter of Q1 acts as the anode terminal of the SCR while the
emitter of Q2 is its cathode. Further, the base of Q1 is connected to the collector of Q2 and the
collector of Q1 is connected to the base of Q2. The gate terminal of the SCR is connected to
the base of Q2,
Switching Characteristics of Thyristor
Commutation of Thyristor:
• SCR can be turned ON by applying appropriate positive gate voltage between the gate and
cathode terminals, but it cannot be turned OFF through the gate terminal.

• The SCR can be brought back to the forward blocking state from the forward conduction state
by reducing the anode or forward current below the holding current level.

• The turn OFF process of an SCR is called commutation.

• The term commutation means the transfer of currents from one path to another. So the
commutation circuit does this job by reducing the forward current to zero so as to turn OFF the
SCR or Thyristor.
Methods Of Commutation:
• When SCR is turned OFF by reducing IF to zero. There exist excess charge carriers in
different layers. To regain the forward blocking state of an SCR, these excess carriers must
be recombined. Therefore, recombination process is accelerated by applying a reverse
voltage across the SCR.

• The reverse voltage which causes to commutate the SCR is called commutation voltage.
Depending on the commutation voltage located, the commutation methods are classified into
two major types.

1) Line/Natural/Source commutation.

2) Forced commutation.
Natural Commutation:
• In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If the
SCR is connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle the anode current
goes through the natural current zero and also immediately a reverse voltage is applied across
the SCR. These are the conditions to turn OFF the SCR.
Forced Commutation:
• In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In such circuits,
forward current must be forced to zero with an external circuit to commutate the SCR hence
named as forced commutation.

• This commutating circuit consist of components like inductors and capacitors called as
commutating components. These commutating components cause to apply a reverse voltage
across the SCR that immediately bring the current in the SCR to zero.

• Forced commutation is classified into different types such as class A, B, C, D, and E.

Class A Commutation:
• VS is applied, SCR in Forward Blocking state. Ig is applied, SCR is triggered and conducts.

• I will increase gradually due to “L.” Capacitor will charge from VC to VS.

• When capacitor fully charged, L will reverse its polarity and will further charge Capacitor.

• Due to reverse IC, IA will go down below IH and Thyristor will be off.
Class B/ Resonant Pulse Commutation:
• IgT is applied, T1 conducts and IT1 will flow, IF=IA. As IgA is applied TA turns on and I starts to
flow in lower loop, and VC will increase in -VC direction.

• Due to -VC(-VS), TA will be off.

• As TA goes off, diode is forward biased and allows IC to flow in opposite direction thus
reducing IA.
Gate Turn Off Thyristor(GTO):
• GTO is an active semiconductor device invented by “General Electric Company” to be
utilized for high power. GTO is fully controlled switch that can be turned ON and OFF
through gate terminal.

• In case of GTO, a small p+ layer is added to form gate. GTO will be turned ON with +ve
pulse and turned off with –ve pulse.

• GTO has high voltage blocking capability and high over current rating, during ON state GTO
acts as SCR. GTO is less reliable than SCR, however it is 10 times faster than SCR, at high
power applications.

• Mostly used in Choppers and PWM inverters.

GTO Contd.
 Comparison B/W SCR and GTO
Characteristics Description SCR 6OOV, 35OA GTO 6OOV, 35OA

VTON On state V drop 1.5V 3.4V

ION Turn On time 8µs 2µs

IgON Gate Current 200mA 2A

tOFF Turn Off time 150µs 15µs

DIAC (Bidirectional Thyristor Diode):
• A DIAC is a diode that conducts electrical current only after its break over voltage (V BO) has
been reached. DIAC stands for “Diode for Alternating Current”. A DIAC is a device which
has two electrodes, and it is a member of the Thyristor family. DIACs are used in the
triggering of Thyristor . The figure below shows a symbol of a DIAC, which resembles the
connection of two diodes in series.
DIAC Characteristics:
TRIAC (Bidirectional Thyristor):
• Triac is a three terminal, four layer, AC switch which is different from the other SCR in the
sense that it can conduct in both the directions that is whether the applied gate signal is
positive or negative, it will conduct. Thus, this device can be used for AC systems as a
switch.

• Figure shows the symbol of triac, which has two main terminals MT 1 and MT2 connected in
inverse parallel and a gate terminal.
TRIAC Characteristics:
SECTION III
Solid State Switches:
• Cycloconverters: Converts Frequency while maintaining power.

• Inverters: Converts DC to AC.

• Rectifiers: Coverts AC to DC.

• Choppers: Varies DC Voltage levels.

• AC Voltage Regulator: Varies Voltage level while maintaining power.

Cycloconverters:
• A Cycloconverter (also known as a Cycloinverter or CCV) converts a constant voltage,
constant frequency AC waveform to another AC waveform of a different frequency.

• The Cycloconverters can transfer AC power of a fixed frequency to the AC power of a

different frequency.

• There are two types of Cycloconverters.

1. Step Up Cycloconverters.

2. Step Down Cycloconverters.

Step Up Cycloconverter:
• It can provide an output having the frequency greater than the input frequency by using line
commutation.
Step Down Cycloconverter:
• It provides output having lower frequency than the input frequency by using forced
commutation.
Single Phase Bridge Type Cycloconverter:
AC Voltage Controller:
• If a semiconductor switch is connected between AC supply and load, the power flow can be controlled
by varying the rms value of AC voltage applied to load, this circuit is known as AC Voltage Controller.

• For Power transfer in AC circuits, following methods are used.

1. Phase angle control.

2. On/Off control (Excitation angle control).

3. PWM Control.
Principle of Phase Control:
Principle of Phase Control Contd.
Principle of ON/OFF Control:
Inverter:
• An inverter (or power inverter) is a power electronics device which used to convert the DC
voltage into AC voltage.

• The inverter is a static device. It can convert one form of electrical power into other forms of
electrical power. But it cannot generate electrical power. Hence the inverter is a converter,
not a generator.

• Thyristors are used in inverters for high frequency applications.

• E-MOSFETs are utilized for high switching frequency.

Classification Of Inverters:
• Inverters can be classified in to two categories.

1. When voltage at source is constant, it is called Voltage fed or Voltage Source Inverter(VSI).

2. If current at input remains same it is known as current Fed or Current Source Inverter(CSI).

• When DC voltage at source is adjusted to maintain output voltage it is called DC Tank

Inverter.

• Inverters can be Single Phase or Three Phase.

Types of Inverter:
Inverter Leg:
• Main building block of an Inverter is Thyristor or MOSFET leg.

• Two Thyristors (T1 and T2) connected with two Diodes (D1 and D2) known as Free wheeling Diodes.

• Purpose of Free wheeling diodes is to protect inverter legs from reversal energy in case of passive loads.

• T1 and T2 are never triggered together at same time. If S1 and S2 are triggered at a same time, it results
in DC short circuit. Therefore they are triggered in a complementary manner.

• The supply voltage divides into two equal parts. The resistive load used to understand the working
principle.
Half Bridge Inverter Leg:
Full Bridge Inverter Leg:
Transistor Based Inverter:
MOSFET Based Inverter:
3-Phase Inverter:
• In a three-phase inverter, six diodes and six Thyristors used. According to the conduction
time of Thyristor, this inverter divides into two types;

• 120-degree mode of operation,

• 180-degree mode of operation.

180-Degree Mode of Operation
• Three Thyristors are in conduction at a time. The conduction time for all Thyristors is 180-
degree.
120-Degree Mode of Operation
• At a time, two Thyristors are in conduction. The conduction time for all Thyristors is 120-
degree. It means, a switch remains ON for 120-degree and OFF for 60-degrees.
Unijunction Transistor:
• UJT, is solid state three terminal device that can be used in gate pulse, timing circuits and trigger
generator applications to switch and control either thyristors and triac’s for AC power control type
applications.

• Like diodes, UJTs are constructed from separate P-type and N-type semiconductor materials forming
a single (hence its name Uni-Junction) PN-junction within the main conducting N-type channel of the
device.

• UJT has the name of a transistor, its switching characteristics are very different from those of a
conventional bipolar or field effect transistor as it can not be used to amplify a signal but instead is
used as a ON-OFF switching transistor. UJT’s have unidirectional conductivity and negative
impedance characteristics acting more like a variable voltage divider during breakdown.
Unijunction Transistor Symbol and Construction
VI Characteristics of UJT:
• When V is zero , and V is applied. Emitter diode is R, biased hence no current flows.
E BB

•• When
 
V is gradually increased a leakage current flows, and UJT will remain off till
E

• As , UJT is turned on and V increase whereas Voltage drop at R decrease, since there
E B1 RB1
will have reduced resistance.
Unijunction Transistor Relaxation Oscillator
Programmable Unijunction Transistor
• It is same as that of UJT except that the intrinsic stand off voltages can be programmed by
two internal resistors.

• It is a 4 layers device PNPN also known as stand / version of thyristor operation is similar to
UJT.
PUT Characteristics
• When the anode to cathode voltage (Va)is increased the anode current will also get increased
and the  junction behaves like a typical P-N junction. But the Va cannot be increased beyond
a particular point.

• Peak voltage (Vp): It is the anode to cathode voltage after which the PUT jumps into the
negative resistance region.
PUT Relaxation Oscillator:
SCR/Thyristor Protection Circuits.
• Protection of a device is an important aspect for its reliable and efficient operation.

• SCR may face different types of threats during its operation due to over voltages, over currents etc.

• There are Four types of Protections for an SCR.

1. di/dt Protection.

2. di/dt Protection.

3. Over voltage Protection.

4. Over voltage Protection.

1. di/dt Protection.
• di/dt is the rate of change of current w.r.t time in the SCR. As SCR is triggered, Ia start to
flow through the device.
• If di/dt > Speed of charges distribution it may create hot spot in the SCR.
• An inductor “ L “ is connected in series with SCR, to control the rate of change of current.
• As “ L “ oppose the di/dt.
• Larger value of L i.e. L>Vsdi/dt must be chosen, so that SCR can be protected against di/dt.
2. dv/dt Protection.
• dv/dt is the rate of change of Voltage w.r.t time in the SCR.
• Since SCR triggered through gate hence larger dv/dt value may cause false triggering of an
SCR, resulting false operations of circuit.
• For that snubber circuit is used to avoid false triggering,
• For dv/dt = 0 “C” acts as open switch , for high dv/dt value “C” provides alternative path,
thus protecting SCR from false triggering.
• “C” charging through dv/dt pulse and discharge through SCR hence “R” is used to limit the
“discharge loop current”.
3. Over voltage protection
Internal Over voltages:
• Internal over voltages arise while the SCR is in operation. During turn OFF of an SCR, a
reverse current continues to flow through the SCR after the anode current decreased to zero.
• This reverse current decay at a faster rate at the end of reverse recover interval. Due to the
inductance of the circuit, this high di/dt produces a high voltage.
• This voltage value may be much higher than the rated value of the SCR and hence the SCR
may be damaged.
• So we can protect the SCR by using Snubber circuit or inductor “L”.
External Over voltages
• These voltages are arises from the supply source or load. If the SCR converter circuit is
connected to a high inductive load, the sudden interruption of current generates a high voltage
across the SCRs.
• Fused is connected in series with the load to protect SCR.
4. Over current protection
• During the short circuit conditions, over current flows through the SCR.
• These short circuits are either internal or external.
• The internal short circuits are caused by the reasons like failure of SCRs to block forward or
reverse voltages,
• The external short circuits are caused by sustained overloads and short circuit in the load.
• Generally for continuous overloads and surge currents of long duration, a circuit breaker is
employed to protect the SCR due to its long tripping time.
 Rectifiers

Uncontrolled Rectifiers Using Diodes

1-Ф 3-Ф
1-Ф Uncontrolled Rectifier:
1-Ф Controlled Rectifier:
3-Ф Uncontrolled Rectifier:
3-Ф Controlled Rectifier:
Chopper:
• Chopper is a basically static power electronics device which converts fixed DC
voltage/power to variable DC voltage or power. It is nothing but a high speed switch which
connects and disconnects the load from source at a high rate to get variable or chopped
voltage at the output.

• DC to DC converter/Chopper is very much needed nowadays as many industrial

applications are dependent upon DC voltage source. It helps to improve controllability of
equipment like, subway cars, trolley buses, battery operated vehicles etc. We can control and
vary a constant DC voltage with the help of a Chopper.
Contd.
• Chopper can increase or decrease the DC voltage level at its opposite side. So, chopper
serves the same purpose in DC circuit transfers in case of ac circuit. So it is also known as
DC transformer.

• Low power application: GTO, IGBT Power BJT, Power MOSFET etc.
High power application: Thyristor or SCR.
Step down Chopper:
• Step down chopper as Buck converted is used to reduce the I/P voltage level at the output.

• The input voltage source is connected to a controllable solid state device which operates as a switch.
The solid state device can be a Power MOSFET or IGBT.

• Thyristors are not used because to turn off a Thyristor, it requires another commutation circuit, whereas
Power MOSFET and IGBT can be turned off by simply.

• The second switch used is diode. Switch and the diode are connected to a low-pass LC filter which is
appropriately designed to reduce the current and voltage ripples. Load is a purely resistive.

• The input voltage is constant and the current through load is also constant.
Voltage Waveform of Step Down Chopper:

• TON → It is the interval in which chopper is in ON state.

• TOFF → It is the interval in which chopper is in OFF state.
• VS → Source or input voltage.
• Vo → Output or load voltage.
• T → Chopping period = TON + TOFF.
Step Up Chopper:

• Step Up Chopper or Boost converter which increases the input DC voltage to a specified DC
output voltage.

• The input voltage source is connected to an Inductor. The solid-state device which operates
as a switch is connected across the source. The second switch used is a diode. The diode is
connected to a capacitor, which is connected in parallel with load.
Voltage Waveform of Step Up Chopper:
According to direction of O/P Voltage & Current.
• Semiconductor devices used in chopper circuit are unidirectional. But arranging the devices
in proper way we can get output voltage as well as output Current from chopper in our
required direction. So, on the basis of this features chopper can be categorized as follows.

• The directions of Io and Vo marked in the Figure 1 is taken as positive direction.

• Before detailed analysis some basic idea regarding Vo – Io quadrant is required here.
Type A or First Quadrant Chopper:
• If output voltage (Vo) and output current (Io) follows the direction as marked in figure 1 then the
chopper operation will be restricted in the first quadrant of V o – Io plane. This type of operation is
called Forward motoring and known as Type-A chopper.

• The average value of Vo and Io is always positive. This is also called step down chopper as average
value of Vo is less than the input voltage. This type of chopper is suitable for motoring operation.
Type B or Second Quadrant Chopper:
• When output voltage (Vo) follows the marked direction in fig. 1 but current flows in the opposite
direction then Vo is taken positive but Io as negative. Hence the chopper operates in the second
quadrant. This type of operation is called Forward braking and known as Type-B Chopper.

• Current Io is always negative here but Vo is positive (sometimes zero). So, power flows from
load to source and operation of type-B chopper is restricted in second quadrant of V o – Io plane.
This type of chopper is suitable for forward braking operation.
Type -C or Two-quadrant type A Chopper:
• This is a two quadrant chopper whose operation is bounded between first and second
quadrant of Vo – Io plane. This type of chopper obtained by connecting type-A and type-B
chopper in parallel as shown in the figure.

• This type of chopper is suitable for both forward motoring and forward braking operation.
Type D or Two-Quadrant Type B Chopper
• When the two choppers are ON, output voltage V0 will be equal to Vs . When V0 = – Vs  the
two choppers will be OFF but both the diodes D1 and D2 will start conducting.

• The average output voltage will be positive when the choppers turn-on time T on will be more
than Toff . As the diodes and choppers conduct current only in one direction the direction of
load current will be always positive.
Type –E or the Four-Quadrant Chopper:
• Type E or the fourth quadrant chopper consists of four semiconductor switches and four
diodes arranged in antiparallel.  The 4 choppers are numbered according to which quadrant
they belong. Their operation will be in each quadrant and the corresponding chopper only be
active in  its quadrant.