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Chapter 1

The Basics

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Anatomy
Anatomy is the study of structures, and
physiology is the study of how structures
function.
Pathology is the study of disease.

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Anatomical Terms
The standard anatomical position is
standing with arms at the sides and palms
and head facing forward.

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Standard Anatomical Position

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Anatomical Terms of Direction 1

Anterior or ventral means “front” or “belly

side.”
Posterior or dorsal means “back side”.
Superior is closer to the top of the head and
is used for the axial region only.
Inferior is farther away from the top of the
head and is used for the axial region only.

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Sagittal View of the Head

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Anatomical Terms of Direction 2

Medial is toward the midline of the body.

Lateral is away from the midline of the body.
Proximal is closer to the connection to the
body and is used for the appendicular region
only.
Distal is farther from the connection to the
body and is used for the appendicular region
only.
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Chest and Abdominal Organs

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Anatomical Terms of Direction 3

Superficial is closer to the surface.

Deep is farther from the surface.
Right is on the body’s right side.
Left is on the body’s left side.

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Layers of the Skin

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Anatomical Regions 1

Axial region is the head, neck, and trunk.

• Abdominal is belly.
• Axillary is armpit.
• Cranial or cephalic is head.
• Cervical is neck.
• Facial is face.
• Inguinal is groin.
• Pelvic is lower trunk.
• Thoracic is chest.
• Umbilical is navel.
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Anatomical Regions 2

The Appendicular region includes arms and

legs.
• Brachial is arm.
• Carpal is wrist.
• Cubital is elbow.
• Femoral is thigh.
• Palmar is palms of the hands.
• Patellar is knee.
• Plantar is soles of the feet.
• Tarsal is ankle.
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Anatomical Regions (Anterior View)

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 Abdominal Quadrants and Nine 14

Regions of the Abdomen

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Anatomical Planes 1

The sagittal plane separates right from left.

The transverse or horizontal plane
separates top from bottom.
The frontal or coronal plane separates
front from back.

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Planes 2

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Anatomical Positions
Supine is anterior surface facing up.
Prone is anterior surface facing down.

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Anatomical Cavities 1

The dorsal cavity.

• Cranial cavity.
• Lined by the meninges.

• Vertebral cavity.
• Lined by the meninges.

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Body Cavities (Lateral View)

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Anatomical Cavities 2

The thoracic cavity.

• Two pleural cavities.
• Lined by pleural membranes.

• The pericardial cavity.

• Lined by the pericardial membranes.

• The mediastinum.
• Space between the pleural cavities.

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Anatomical Cavities 3

The abdominopelvic cavity.

• The abdominal cavity.
• Lined by the peritoneum.

• The pelvic cavity.

• Lined by the peritoneum.

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Body Cavities (Anterior View)

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Serous Membranes 1

Serous membranes form two layers when

surrounding an organ, similar to a water
balloon surrounding a fist.
• The pericardial membranes surround the heart.
• The pleural membranes surround the lungs.
• The peritoneal membranes surround many of
the abdominopelvic organs.
• The area posterior to the peritoneal membranes is the
retroperitoneal space.

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Water Balloon Analogy

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Serous Membranes 2

The portion of the serous membrane in

contact with the organ is the visceral
pericardium, visceral pleura, or visceral
peritoneum.
The portion of the serous membrane not in
contact with the organ is the parietal
pericardium, parietal pleura, or parietal
peritoneum.

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Pericardial and Pleural Membranes

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Serous Membranes 3

The mesenteries are sections of the

peritoneum that neatly arrange blood
vessels and nerves to organs.
• The greater and lesser omentums are
extensions of the peritoneal membrane.

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Peritoneal Membrane

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Abdominopelvic Organs (Anterior View)

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 Omentums and Mesenteries 30

(Anterior View)

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Homeostasis 1

Homeostasis is a steady internal

environment in which the body works best.
• If the body detects a change away from
homeostasis, it will use either of two feedback
mechanisms.
• Negative feedback.
• Positive feedback.

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Homeostasis 2

Negative Feedback.
• Negative feedback is the process the body
uses to reverse the direction of movement away
from homeostasis.

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Negative-Feedback Mechanisms

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Homeostasis 3

Positive Feedback.
• Positive feedback is the process the body uses
to increase the movement away from
homeostasis.

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Terms of Pathology
Pathology is the study of disease.
Disease.
• Abnormally functioning organs or organ
systems resulting from a disruption in the
normal state of the body’s internal environment
(homeostasis).

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Predisposing Factors of Disease 1

Predisposing factors are risk factors or

activities that people participate in that can
affect their health.
• Ones that cannot be controlled:
1. Age.
2. Gender.
3. Heredity.
• Ones that can be controlled:
4. Lifestyle.
5. Environment.
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Predisposing Factors of Disease 2

1. Age
• More susceptible to disease:
• Elderly: as the body gets older, organ systems
can become less efficient.
• Children: babies are born with partially developed
immune systems.
• More susceptible to infectious disease.

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Infectious Disease: Chicken Pox

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Predisposing Factors of Disease 3

Children may also suffer from:

• Congenital disorders: present at birth.
• Genetic disorders: caused by inherited genes,
which are passed to children by their parents.
• Developmental disorders: occur while the
child is developing in the womb, at birth, or after
birth; may interrupt normal development.

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Congenital Disorder – Cleft Lip

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Predisposing Factors of Disease 4

The Elderly
• As the body ages, there is a general reduction
in function.
• There is an inability of certain organs such as
the brain and heart to regenerate.
• Overall, women live longer than men.

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Predisposing Factors of Disease 5

2. Gender
• Gender refers to the sex of an individual—
male or female.
• Some diseases affect only males or females
due to the differences in anatomy.

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Predisposing Factors of Disease 6

3. Heredity
• There is a combination of the genetic codes
from both parents.
• There are genetic links to certain diseases
and pathological conditions—
predisposition.
• Many times, predisposition combined with the
presence of certain lifestyle risk factors make a
person more prone to a particular disease or
condition.

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Predisposing Factors of Disease 7

4. Lifestyle
• Bad lifestyle choices can contribute to
disease.
• Lifestyle risk factors can be controlled and
altered by the individual.

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Predisposing Factors of Disease 8

5. Environment
• Environmental stressors that can contribute
to poor health:
• Polluted air/water.
• Chronic stress.
• Loud noise.
• Poor and unsanitary living conditions.
• Contaminated food.

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Signs and Symptoms of Disease 1

Signs
• Objective signals: can be measured.
• For example, fever.

Symptoms
• Subjective signals relative to the patient:
cannot be measured.
• For example, headache or nausea.

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Signs and Symptoms of Disease 2

Pain
• Serves as a defense mechanism to warn the
person that there is a problem.
• Prevents further injury.

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Signs and Symptoms of Disease 3

Pain Scale: enables patients to rank their

degree of pain and discomfort.
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Signs and Symptoms of Disease 4

Inflammation is the body’s normal immune

response to injury and disease.
Redness, heat, swelling, and pain are signs
and symptoms of inflammation.
• Mediators: chemicals released by damaged
tissue that dilate blood vessels.

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Signs and Symptoms of Disease 5

Inflammatory
Response

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Classification of Disease 1

Diseases can be classified as:

1. Infectious diseases.
2. Cancers.
3. Immune disorders.
4. Genetic disorders.
5. Mental disorders.
6. Conditions caused by trauma or injury.

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Classification of Disease 2

1. Infectious Disease
• Caused by pathogens.
• Damage local tissue.
• Produce substances that are toxic to the infected
individual.

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Classification of Disease 3

2. Cancers
• Uncontrollable cell growth and proliferation.
• Mostly caused from mutations.
• Form tumors, or neoplasms, that compete
with healthy tissue for nutrients.
• Angiogenesis.

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Classification of Disease 4

3. Immune Disorders
• 3 Types.
• Hypersensitivities.
• Immunodeficiency disorders.
• Autoimmune disorders.

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Classification of Disease 5

3. Immune Disorders
• Hypersensitivities.
• An overreaction of the immune system to an
allergen.
• Anaphylaxis: a severe, systemic reaction that
can cause tightening of the airway.

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Classification of Disease 6

3. Immune Disorders
• Immunodeficiency disorders.
• Deficiency in the immune system’s ability to
defend the body.
• Body is left vulnerable to pathological conditions.

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Classification of Disease 7

3. Immune Disorders
• Autoimmune disorders.
• Inability of the immune system to distinguish
between self and non-self.
• The body’s immune system attacks its own cells.

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Classification of Disease 8

4. Genetic Disorders
• Characterized as abnormalities caused by:
• A mutation in the genetic code.
• Presence of abnormal chromosomes.
• The alteration of chromosomal structure.

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Classification of Disease 9

5. Mental Disorders
• A class of conditions of the mind and include
disorders associated with behavior or
psychological well-being.
• Various etiologies.

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Classification of Disease 10

6. Trauma / Injury
• Trauma can be defined as a wound or shock
produced by an injury.

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Diagnosing Disease 1

Diagnosis is the interpretation of all the

data collected or the process of determining
the cause or nature of the problem.

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Diagnosing Disease 2

Diseases are found by either a routine screening

or a patient experiencing signs and symptoms.
The medical professional evaluates the chief
complaint, by performing a history and physical
exam.
Diagnostic tests and laboratory screenings are
performed.
Based on the history, physical exam, diagnostic
and lab tests, the differential diagnosis is made.
Treatment is then planned.
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Differential Diagnosis
A differential diagnosis is used when there
is more than one disease that might be
responsible for the patient’s condition.

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Treatment of the Disease

4 Types of Treatment Plans:
1. Palliative treatment: make patient comfortable
when there is no cure.
2. Curative treatment: to cure disease.
3. Therapeutic treatment: to restore normal
function.
4. Preventive treatment: steps can be taken to
prevent disease from happening.

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Introduction to Epidemiology 1

Epidemiology is the study of how disease

affects the overall health and well-being of a
population.
Incidence of disease refers to the rate and
range of the occurrence of the disease.
Prevalence of disease refers to how
widespread the occurrence of the disease
may be.

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Introduction to Epidemiology 2

Trends in Epidemiology:
1. Determine the direction of pharmaceutical
research.
2. Determine the direction of treatment by health
care professionals.

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